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THE STUDY OF IDYLLS OF THE KING 



CRITICAL NOTES, REFERENCES, AND 
TOPICS FOR STUDY 



7£ 



BY 

H. A. DAVIDSON 



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Two Cepiss R&;eived 

JUL 2/ I9ff 

GLASS <X XX c. ivo, 
-^e Study of - 






CONTENTS. 



iterary Art in Idylls of the King . . 3 
The Distinction between Idyll and Idyllic . . .54, 63 

Directions for Note-book Work 10 

Note -book Topics for Classes and for Study -clubs . . . 12 

Note-book Topics for Critical Studj' 13 

The Use of the Text . 15 

The Reading of Criticism 15 

Written Papers in Study Clubs 16 

Written Work for Advanced Students 17 

References for Study of Idylls of the King . . . . 18 

Topics for Study, with Critical Notes 23 

Preliminary ......... 23 

For The Coming of Arthur 27 

For Gareth and Ivynette 32 

For Geraint and Enid 37 

For Balin and Balan 46 

For Merlin and Vivien 50 

For Lancelot and Elaine 56 

For The Holy Grail 67 

For Pelleas and Ettarre 75 

For The Last Tournament 79 

For Guinevere 83 

For The Passing of Arthur \ 87 



Copyright, 1901, 1907, by 
H. A. DAVIDSON, M. A., Author of The Creative Art 
of Fiction, I,iterary Study for Busy People, 
^\ The Study-Guide Series, etc. 



The Study of Idylls of the King 



INTRODUCTION. 
THE STUDY OF IvlTERARY ART IN IDYLLS OF THE KING. 

Tennyson's Idylls of the King are subtly difficult and complex, 
full of delicate aesthetic beauty, of noble truth, and pure imagina- 
tion. In them idyllic and epic qualities intermingle, and the 
slow evolution of the dramatic story is accomplished through the 
medium of separate idyllic narratives. The selection and adap- 
tation of old legends and traditions ; the elusive infusion of ethical 
meaning everywhere ; the study of poetic qualities, of the limita- 
tions of idyllic form and figurative language, are topics that offer to 
students already trained and mature, rich rewards for careful and 
extended study, but they suggest the preparation of the instructor, 
or the analytical study of the critic, and lie wholly outside of the 
field of work possible for those at a distance from libraries, and 
without the personal guidance of some competent scholar. What, 
then, is the ordinary reader to do ? Is it possible for him to gain 
any true understanding, however inadequate, of these noble poems? 

On first consideration, the task seems difficult to the point of 
absurdity, but we should remember that for a generation thousands 
of persons without special training, and but moderately gifted, 
have read and enjoyed Tennyson's Idylls. It is also true that the 
greatest poets and artists have always appealed directly to their 
fellowmen of the common sort. Let us seek in Idylls of the King 
the basis of this appeal, and find thus, if we may, some sugges- 
tion for guidance. The complexity which renders the Idylls diffi- 



cult furnishes also a wider range of selection for purposes of reading 
or study than other literature gives. In more than one of the Idylls, 
Tennyson follows so closely a mediaeval tale that the reading 
of the poem merely as a modern version of the older story richly 
repays the student. The weeks devoted to this study will not be 
misspent if no more than this is done ; every library should con- 
tain editions of Malory's Morte Darthur, the best modern versions 
of the Arthurian romances, and a translation of the beautiful Welsh 
stories of the Mabinogion. In these books, readers have in hand 
the sources of Tennyson's Idylls. The stories of themselves have 
a perennial interest, and in them students will learn how, from 
some shadowy, early reality, the heroes of chivalry have acquired 
vitality and permanence as literary characters and have been used, 
over and again, to express the ideals of many generations. Inciden- 
tally, the pupil comes to understand, also, the source and use of 
literary material, and is thus the better ready for direct study of 
this difficult topic when, in later years, he comes to it. In one, 
at least, of the required Idylls, the allegorical passages approach in 
definite symbolism the form of the fable, and are well adapted for 
literal and methodical interpretation by readers not prepared to 
follow Tennyson's more subtle suggestions of spiritual meaning. 

But the reading of the Idylls merely as versions of the adven- 
tures related by Malory seems superficial, and unworthy of the 
noble character of the series in which they stand. Each Idyll con- 
tains a part of the larger story of the king, beginning with the 
coming of Arthur and ending only when he rode from Almesbury 
to that great " battle in the west " where he died. Surely it were a 
pity for students to read these poems and fail to find in them the 
ideal knight for the portrayal of whom all were written. But it is 
in passing from the separate story to the larger meaning running 
through successive Idylls that the task of interpretation becomes 
difficult. The deeper meaning of the story of Arthur's life, of his 
noble purpose thwarted through the sin of the queen, of the broken 
fellowship of knights gone to " follow wandering fires," is scantily 
indicated and the topic, moreover, requires maturity and acumen. 



There is, probably, no literature in which narrative structure, pure 
and simple, is more complex and difficult than in Idylls of the King, 
Students who have had careful training in aesthetics and in the 
theory of the drama are often unable to disentangle the mingling^ 
threads of plot. Each Idyll has its own form and structure, but 
the characters of the larger drama take their parts in its scenes, 
and incidents of slight import in the story often receive an undue 
emphasis because of the part they play in the development of the 
action running through the series. Moreover, as the series pro- 
gresses, with the nicest artistic sense of proportion, Tennyson calls 
attention, less and less, to the separate story, and mingles in in- 
creasing ratio characters and scenes purely of the main action. All 
this can be followed appreciatively only after considerable study of 
literary form, especially in the drama and in fiction. The clue to 
follow in the unfolding of this great drama must be sought in the 
earliest phase of Tennyson's conception and in the first Idyll of 
the series. The poet was a boy, himself, when King Arthur won his 
allegiance, and the devotion rendered to his ideal knight in those 
early years never died out of his heart. We must bring back the 
hero-king whose figure is to run through all the Idylls as connect- 
ing link, giving to each a meaning wider than its own story bears. 
Malory's Morte Darthur in the original text is easily read, and 
references to selected chapters corresponding with Tennyson's 
stories are given for each Idyll. If possible, attention should be 
given, first, to Arthur, as he appears in tradition, and in the old 
stories of the middle ages. The material is abundant and inter- 
esting. The wall map, even, may be called into service ; the 
definite location in England of the places around which traditions 
of Arthur still linger will give a reality to the old Celtic stories not 
to be gained in any other way. 

But it is in **The Coming of Arthur" that the figure of the 
king, who with his " secret word" and his Table Round is to be a 
part of every Idyll to follow, stands forth. In this Idyll, it is 
related how Arthur '* made a kingdom and reigned." The descrip- 
tion of Cameliard, overrun by heathen hordes, is a picture, in small, 



of Arthur's own kingdom, Britain. His task was the bringing of 
safety and order into every part of his realm. For success in this 
purpose, he must be recognized as Uther's son and crowned as 
king. After this, he himself believed that his greatest aids would 
be a queen, one with him in purpose, and a fellowship of brave 
knights sworn to do his will. As the story goes on, Merlin had 
Arthur crowned, and after, he wedded Leodogran's daughter and 
established the famous ** Order of his Table Round." All is sum- 
marized in the glorious song, **Blow trumpet, for the world is 
white with May." The Idyll closes with proof of the strength of 
the crowned, wedded king, whose knights "were, for a space, of 
one will with himself." 

If the reader has little notion of the meaning of the secret 
word, or of vows so straight that those who took them "were 
pale as at the passing of a ghost," he will readily conceive of The 
Round Table as a fellowship of knights bound by the most sacred 
vows to uphold the king. In succeeding Idylls, each knight 
belongs to this fellowship, or seeks admission, and the honor and 
success of life is, for him, bound up in his worthiness as a member 
of Arthur's Table Round. In each separate Idyll, the king forms 
so slight a part of the narrative that without the aid of the Table 
Round and the relation of each knight, through this fellowship, 
to the king, Arthur's name and character will scarcely linger in 
the memory. But when in succeeding Idylls, knights as different 
as Gareth, Gawain, and Lancelot, each worship the king, and fear 
his disapproval, the strength of the fellowship as an order becomes 
a real thing to the student. Through it, the shadowy king, always 
in the background, is nevertheless unforgetable ; and his character, 
revealed, by little and little, in the ideals of conduct required of 
his knights, is illumined and remains in the memory like the 
vision of some beautiful face seen in early years and then with- 
drawn. 

In the deeper meaning of this Idyll, 'in the purpose of the 
king, is found the master key of the great and noble tragedy to 
follow. From the joyous beginning of a time, the action moves on, 



scene by scene, to days of doubt and suspicion; then, through base 
rumors and acts more base, until evil days draw on, of jealousy and 
false piety, in which, ere the end, the goodliest fellowship of the 
world was broken up. Each purpose of the king, each aid on 
which he leaned, failed to fulfill his hope, and in the growing 
certainty of this failure the action moves forward to the moment of 
climax, and of catastrophe, in which we see the king bereft of his 
knights, betrayed by wife and friend, alone, in utmost need. As, 
in the beginning, the heart of his purpose was the secret word, so, 
in the end, it was his doom that he saw all the purpose of his life 
spoiled, his realm ** reeling back into the beast." 

This, then, is the clue to follow in the study of the narrative 
structure of Idylls of the King. Each separate Idyll fulfills an 
essential part in the central purpose, and the story told in it 
must be understood in the light of the greater drama moving 
forward through the series. The story of the changes and additions 
through which part was adjusted to part and each Idyll related 
with artistic nicety to all that went before or followed, need not be 
repeated, but every one who reads or studies these poems should 
bear in mind the successive phases of poetic imagination and 
purpose through which they grew. It was a peculiarity of Tenny- 
son's genius that a beautiful thought, or phrase, or fancy, once in 
the possession of his mind, was a treasure beyond price. A concep- 
tion which had moved him deeply could never be wholly given up; 
it lingered in his imagination after the plan of which it had formed 
an essential part was abandoned, and subtly modified and enriched 
later conceptions. The central thought of the poet in his final 
arrangement of Idylls of the King was infinitely richer and greater 
than his early conception, yet the figure of the "blameless king," 
moving among his knights . . . " as the conscience of a saint 
among his warring senses," . . . "the highest and most 
human, too," bears a haunting suggestion of the epic hero, and 
Merlin now and again fills a part which might well be borrowed 
from the earlier plan. 

Indeed, it would seem that every phase and form of meaning 



8 

ever harbored in Tennyson's mind may be traced in some part of 
these richly varied poems. The poet cherished, in a long life, a 
conception which drew into itself the fullness, the strength and 
beauty of his own soul, ripening slowly as years brought maturity, 
experience, and freedom. To this is due the manifold, inwrought 
beauty of the Idylls, richer and more subtly complex than any 
other English verse. If many theories of interpretation have arisen 
it is because for each some correspondence may be traced here or 
there in the Idylls. To those who would have had him say, in age, 
whether his meaning lay in this interpretation, or in that, the poet 
replied that for each, the truth must lie in his own understanding 
of what he had read and in the fervor of spiritual perception 
kindled within him. As his own mind traveled backward along 
the way it had come and rested with pleasure on each earlier phase 
of its growth, so he seemed to feel that in his writings might be 
found something corresponding to each. 

"And truth is this to me and that to thee; 
And truth, or clothed, or naked, let it be." 

Appreciation of these wonderful poems is only to be gained in 
a manner comparable, in some degree, with the slow process of 
their growth. Through long and intimate study of each part, 
through tracing each thread of meaning subtly interwoven, an 
intimate understanding of the poet's thought comes to the attentive 
mind, a higher and finer kind of vision; in the midst of rich detail 
s revealed the greatness of the design, and the beauty and wealth of 
poetic suggestion hidden in the verse are seen as the expression 
and adornment of deeper meanings, each lying within the other, as 
spirit hides in an outward form. 

The Idylls of the King are rich in literary and poetic beauty, 
in phrases that linger in the memory, in expressions of rare and 
significant charm, or in lines pregnant with meaning, — "The 
myriad cricket of the mead ; " . . . " rapt by all the sweet and 
sudden passion of youth toward greatness in its elders ; " . . . 
"Obedience, . . . the courtesy due to kings," and many more. 
Tennyson is here, as every where, infinitely complex, and his verse 



is a composite in which beautiful descriptions, phrases rich in poetic 
significance, mingle with intangible qualities that, like an atmos- 
phere, pervade and give color to all. The finest intelligence is 
taxed to follow the working of the master's mind, and perhaps 
only persons rarely endowed with poetic insight catch the full 
significance and beauty of each part of these wonderful poems. 
This is not the place for consideration of those subtle and carefully 
selected means of literary art employed by the poet in the expres- 
sion of his purpose, but whatever phase of rythmic quality or 
poetic beauty is selected for attention, it proves as complex, as 
wonderfully wrought of many elements, as nicely adapted to the 
inner meaning, as is the larger plan, of which it forms a part. Where- 
ever we spend most careful and loving study, however small the 
picture, or slight the incident, there we find that the prevision of 
the poet still surpasses our appreciation, and it is the highest of 
tributes to Tennyson's breadth and power that he never permits us, 
while the mind dwells upon beautiful detail, complete in itself, to 
forget the higher use it is designed to serve. In the music of the 
verse, in the vision called up in the mind, we catch his meaning, as 
one may see in the sensitive lineaments of some human face, now 
and again, in transient glimpses, the quick, sentient spirit, the very 
flame of life itself, more beautiful than the features it illumines. 

Here and there, in the study of Idylls of the King to follow, 
are topics intended to suggest systematic study of the rich literary 
art in these poems. When the time at command is limited, these 
topics may easily be omitted, but those who have felt, even faintly 
and from afar, the touch of creative impulse, will linger longest 
here, and find in this phase of study richest reward. The poet- 
born has no need of aid or suggestion in reading the poems of 
another, but many of us halt along the way, and must avail our- 
selves of every means of enkindling our more feeble imagination if 
we are to attain, at length, the joy of insight and the vision of 
complex and wonderful beauty such as filled the mind of the author 
of Idylls of the King* 

♦This introduction is in part quoted from essays by the writer, printed 
elsewhere. 



DIRECTIONS FOR NOTE-BOOK WORK. 

All note-books should be paged, and running titles, in abbre- 
viated form, should always be placed at the top of each page. 
Careful attention should be paid to the grouping of facts and to the 
subordination of particulars to the more general statements of 
which they are divisions or illustrations. Generous white space 
should be left between groups of particulars that the form of 
arrangement on the page may emphasize the group as a separate 
division. 

Whenever the particulars entered in the note-book are to be used 
as evidence in proof of statements, or when conclusions will be 
based upon them, exact references to books cited as authorities 
should be given. Without the authority and a presentation of 
exact data, the statements in note -books have no value which should 
be accepted either in discussions, or in recitation. The principle 
that note-books should contain only data really valuable for refer- 
ence, arranged and indexed in such form as to be accessible without 
loss of time, should be adhered to. 

When a subject of study such as Idylls of the King gives rise 
to several distinct note-book topics, these may easily be kept in one 
book by the device of page references, placed at the foot of the full 
page, to the continuation of the topic farther over in the book ; the 
corresponding reference to the page from which the topic is con- 
tinued must also be placed at the top of the new page. 

In note-book work, it is a mistake to write full sentences or 
paragraphs. The note -book should be a graphic, organized sum- 
mary of the reading or study of the pupils, and should be packed 
full of exact, well-arranged data likely to slip from the memory 
w^ithout this aid. The purpose of note-book work is not the making 
of a substitute for the books from which the items have been 
gathered. It should, instead, be a key, an index rerum, which will 
guide the student without loss of time to the items he needs, or 
the paragraphs he has found valuable. By the aid of a well-kept note- 
book the student should find it possible to review the important part 



<5f a dozen books in as short a time as the careful first-reading of one 
of them required. References to pictures, maps, or references per- 
taining to the subject, etc., may be placed in the margin of the page 
of the note-book, or on alternate blank pages left for this purpose. 
The references to Malory's Morte Darthur placed at the head of 
the Topics for Study for each Idyll illustrate this subject. They 
have been taken from the note-book of the editor, and in the copy 
of the Morte Darthtir use-d, the passages referred to are so marked 
in the margin of the page that the eye finds them instantly. 

It is not intended that each student should include all the note- 
book topics in his study. The preliminary topics should be pre- 
pared and placed in the note-book for reference, in the beginning. 
Each one should arrange Plot Outlines in convenient form for refer- 
ence and comparison. This is of special importance in the study of 
** Idylls of the King," on account of the complex relation of the 
plots ; each Idyll should be compared with the older tales from 
which the story is drawn as a study in selection ; and the dramatic 
development of the cycle must be distinguished from the plots of 
the separate episodes in which it mingles. Definitions and analyses 
should also be placed in the note-book for illustration and refer- 
ence. Other topics may be chosen or omitted according to time 
and personal inclination. The Study of the Idylls of the King is 
arranged with special reference to the cultivation of critical acumen. 
Insight, the power that discerns literary qualities and defines by 
analysis and comparison degrees of excellence, or ideals of the 
poet's art, may be acquired only by such work as the student of 
science does in the laboratory. For this reason, each reader should 
give special attention to one or more of the topics designed to aid 
him in the formation of intelligent and critical opinions about the 
Idylls and the qualities of Tennyson's verse. 



NOTE-BOOK TOPICS FOR STUDENTS. 
Preliminary : 

I. For reference : A list of the Idylls of the King, in the order 
in which they were written. 
II. A list of the Idylls of the King, showing the groups in which 
they were successively published. 

III. A chronology of Tennyson's life showing the time of com- 

position and of publication of the Idylls of the King. 

For Study of the Idylls : 

IV. List of Characters in each Idyll. 

V. Ivist of Characters common to several Idylls, or to the series. 

VI. Plot Outlines : 
a. Of the story of the separate Idyll, showing the beginning of 

the story, the essential steps of its development, its climax, 

and conclusion. 
b. Outline showing the cycle story in the story of the Idyll ; that 

is, if the Idyll is one act in the drama of the cycle, show the 

plot of the act, and how it advances the story of the series. 

Note. — Those events or facts belong in a plot outline which 
determine subsequent events. They give the effective presentation 
of the theme and lead inevitably to the climax, and conclusion. It 
is necessary, always, to distinguish carefully between such events 
or facts as have determining force, and those incidents which are 
illustrative, or contribute to character building. 

The plot structure of Idylls of the King is peculiarly compli- 
cated. Each Idyll has its own subject and plan of dramatic presen- 
tation. In each, certain characters, situations, conditions, contribute 
to the development of the general plan running through the series. 
In each Idyll, there must, therefore, be a subject which is the 
central artistic conception, and an arrangement of plot for the pre- 
sentation of this theme ; there is, also, in each, a subject which is 
the expression of a distinct purpose, or step, in the larger plan of 
the series. The separate Idyll in relation to the series is, in a 



13 

manner, similar to the scene in the act, or to the act in the drama. 
It follows that the same incident may be of dramatic importance in 
the series and merely incidental in the Idyll,. or the reverse. Plot 
outlines should, therefore, be arranged to show, in parallel, this 
double significance ; the plot elements of the Idyll may be noted in 
sequence, with indication of beginning, climax, conclusion, and 
those belonging to the series may be repeated in their own arrange- 
ment, according to importance. Many fine critical distinctions must 
be made in studying the relation of these complex plots, and, in the 
result, the reader will gain an appreciation not to be arrived at in 
any other way, of the poet's artistic skill in narration. 

VII. Character Studies : 

These are not similar to the character studies of fiction or the 
drama, but have, rather, an artistic quality, a nicety of adapta- 
tion to an ethical purpose. 

VIII. Quotations : 

Select only such quotations as are complete when severed from 
the context, and of great value for beauty of sentiment, accuracy 
of analysis, or clear statement of profound truth. Seek to find 
a few choice passages, rather than to make many quotations. 

NOTE-BOOK TOPICS FOR CRITICAL STUDY. 

(FOR ADVANCED AND SPECIAIv STUDENTS.) 
IX. Ivist of characters drawn from Malory, or other sources, and 
adapted. Analyses of means of adaptation, etc., with refer- 
ences, should furnish material, in the end, for a critical 
study. 
X. Old characters markedly changed in presentation, with notes 
of reasons, and references. 
XI. In the plot, critical notes of incidents, characters which have 
different value, relation, or use, in the Idyll and in the series. 
d. For each, use and relation, both in Idyll and in cycle must be 
noted. There is no better means of studying the compli- 
cated relations of mingling plots. 



14 

XII. In the use of old material : 

a. Perversions, or changes of characters. 

d. New interpretations of old incidents. 

c. Invention on the part of the author. 

d. The literary end served in each instance noted under *a, ' *b, * 'c. " 

XIII. The allegorical element in Idylls of the King : 

XII. and XIII. are special topics for those interested. The notes 
should show how idealism modified the author's plan, and indi- 
cate in a trustworthy manner the literary use made of the 
allegorical element. With this aid, the reader may consider 
the critical question whether Tennyson distinctly intended to 
thread his narrative with an allegorical element in subordina- 
tion to his main purpose, or halted between two opinions, inclin- 
ing, at different periods, to one or the other. 

XIV. Evidence that Tennyson changed or modified his general 
purpose in the series. This topic should be discussed only at 
the close of the series, in connection with the consideration of 
the epic or idyllic form of the poem, the allegorical interpre- 
tation, etc. 

XV. References to literature having close connection with Tenny- 
son's verse giving a different expression to the same purpose, 
useful for comparison in critical study, or as illustrations of 
figures of speech, etc. 

XVI. Tests, analyses, and definitions : 

Used in the study of poetic qualities, dramatic power, etc. 
This topic is designed for the few who are making a special study 
of literary art. 

XVII. Characteristics of Tennyson, the poet. 

These should be notes of qualities of verse, artistic or idyllic set- 
ting, use of figures of speech, habit in description, means em- 
ployed to gain results, etc. They should furnish material for a 
critical discussion of the artistic qualities in Tennyson's verse,- 
or in his narrative. 



15 

XVIII. Idealism in Tennyson. 

XIX. Special Topics. 

College students and students of literary art will find special 
topics for themselves in the study of Tennyson's versification, 
or of the idyllic qualities of the poem, or in other similar sub- 
jects. The note -book for these topics is simply a means of col- 
lecting and organizing data for the formation of opinion ; the 
material may then be used in presenting the subject in an 
intelligible and interesting written form. 

THE USE OF THE TEXT. 

It is desirable to use a copy of the text not too valuable for mark- 
ing. It is often convenient to note, a series of facts by marginal 
references, or by words, such as ** Theme," "Plot," etc., and it 
facilitates later study of the characters to write the initial letter of 
the name of each important character in the margin whenever any 
description, analysis, or other indication of personality occurs. It 
will then be possible to trace characters through the narrative with- 
out re-reading. — From " The Study of Romola.'" 

THE READING OF CRITICISM. 
Many of the essays that have been written in interpretation of 
Tennyson's Idylls are full of insight, but the reading of criticism 
should be deferred until the conclusion of this study. The mind, 
like a mirror of clear glass, is easily clouded ; knowledge of the 
opinions of others, held in esteem, often casts a shadow that 
obscures, past recognition, the original activity of the intelligence. 
The reading of criticisms upon literature of which one is ignorant 
is much like reading a guide-book in place of visiting a foreign 
land. When students have become thoroughly familiar with the 
Idylls and, through them, with certain qualities and characteristics 
of their author, critical opinions will serve their true purpose, that 
of suggesting to one student the conclusions of another with which 
he may compare his own. 



i6 

WRITTEN PAPERS IN STUDY CLUBS. 

It is not intended that the topics for study in this guide shall 
be distributed to different members of study-clubs, or assigned for 
written papers. All members of the study club should read, study, 
and make notes for each meeting upon the same topics. In this 
way only, is it possible to secure keen interest or intelligent discus- 
sion and criticism. It is also essential, if a well proportioned view 
of the year's study is to result, that each one should regularly do a 
minimum amount of work in common with all. The college in- 
structor would never think of assigning one topic only of a long, 
cumulative series for individual study and presentation, as a means 
of obtaining a satisfactory knowledge of the whole subject, and the 
device is as inadequate in the study club — usually less homo- 
geneus in natural ability and training than the college class. 

If written papers are considered an essential feature of the club 
program they may be arranged, (a) on outside topics, frankly 
miscellaneous, or of current interest, while the main part of the 
time is reserved for discussion of topics of study under the guidance 
of a presiding member ; or, (d) these papers may be on topics 
closely connected with the subject of study, but not essential parts 
of it ; or, (c) an afternoon, once in several months may be set aside 
for written papers with the distinct understanding that a certain 
number of most important topics already canvassed in study and 
discussions shall be presented in written form. This is the most 
important and valuable kind of written work for the study club, for 
it is original, that is, based upon individual study of the literature ; 
it presents the results of study mingled with personal opinion 
slowly matured, and it offers for the enjoyment of all a contribu- 
tion in literary form of the best that each one can do. For the 
individual, also, the effort of composition and presentation furnishes 
a test of the permanent results gained from the months of study, 
and is an index of personal power and independence, — for the one 
who leans heavily on others must bring an incoherent series of 
observations, while the real student presents opinions which have 
survived criticism and discussion. 



17 

WRITTEN WORK FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS. 

In this study of "Idylls of the King" are included certain 
topics intended to suggest critical study of the most careful and 
accurate kind. This study involves comparison, analysis, distinc- 
tion of subtle artistic elements, and, finally, critical opinion arising 
from individual study of literary art. The expression of critical 
opinion in accurate analyses, with subtly drawn distinctions, is 
perhaps the severest test of acumen, and of resource in the art of 
expression that can be found. This part of the study offers train- 
ing in laboratory methods of criticism and in the art of critical 
writing ; for this reason, all definitions, distinctions, and conclu- 
sions should be written in the choicest and most accurate diction at 
the command of the student. Topics for this kind of study are 
found in the analysis and interpretation of the literary art which is 
the subject of study, and at every opportunity the student should 
express the results of study, or his own conclusions in critical 
paragraphs, or in short essays. Any critical question which involves 
comparison, analysis, or synthesis, and the formation of opinion, 
or the definition and illustration of artistic qualities, or purpose, will 
serve as theme, and the effort of giving adequate expression to im- 
pressions in the mind will require the keenest exercise of critical 
ability, and the most patient revision of phrase or word to secure 
the expression that is most fit. These topics are designed for 
college and advanced students, and especially for students of 
literary art who seek aid in acquiring broad culture and in the 
discipline through which would-be -writers gain freedom and skill 
in the expression, in literary composition, of their own thought. 



i8 

References for Study of Idylls of the King. 

BOOKS WHICH SHOUIvD BE OWNED. 

The Idylls of the King, edited by W. J. Rolfe, is a convenient 

handbook. 
Essays on Tennyson's Idylls of the King, by Harold Littledale. 
I^e Morte Darthur, by Malory. The Globe edition. The Macmillan 

Company, is uniform with **The Works of Tennyson." 
The Study of Idylls of the King, full series, by H. A. Davidson. 
A complete edition of Tennyson's poetry, containing the latest 

revision. Either the Globe edition, The Macmillan Company, 

or The Cambridge edition, Houghton, Mifflin and Company, is 

satisfactory. 

A Life of Tennyson, either, 

a. Tennyson, by Sir Alfred Lyall, English Men of Letters ; or 

b. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, A Memoir, by his son. (May be had 
in one volume. Where possible, this Memoir should be owned 
instead of the smaller life.) 

BOOKS FOR THE LIBRARY. 
Tennyson's Life : 
Alfred, Lord Tennyson, A Memoir, by his son. 
Alfred, Lord Tennyson, by W. E. Wace. 
Alfred, Lord Tennyson, by Arthur Waugh. 
Tennyson, Poet, Philosopher, and Idealist, by J. C. Walter. 

Scribner's. 
Tennyson, by Sir Alfred Lyall, English Men of Letters. The 

Macmillan Company. 
Alfred Tennyson, by Andrew Lang. Modern English Writers. 
The Poems of A. H. Hallam, by R. Le Gallienne ; Remains in 

Verse and Prose, A. H. Hallam. J. Murray. 
Memories of the Tennysons, illustrated. By Rev. H. L- 

Rawnsley. The Macmillan Company. 



19 

Homes and Haunts of Tennyson, by G. G. Napier. Maclehose 
and Sons. 

Records of Tennyson, Browning, and Ruskin, by Anne Thackeray- 
Ritchie. 

The Study of Idylls of the King (full series), by H. A. Davidson. 
The Study-Guide Series. 

Older Literature used as sources of Arthurian story : 

Le Morte Darthur, by Malory, edited by Sir E. Strachey ; Globe 

edition. 
Six Old English Chronicles, containing Nennius's "History of 

the Britons," Geoffrey of Monmouth's " British History, etc. ; " 

Bohn's Libraries. 
Arthur and the Table Round, chiefly after the French of Chretien 

de Troyes, by W. W. Newell, 2 vols. 
For Henry Morley's discussion of Arthurian Romance, in 

" English Writers," see vol. iii., chapter vi. 
" Romances of Arthur and of Antiquity," chapter iv., in ** Short 

History of French Literature," by George Saintsbury. 
The Mabinogion, translated by Lady Henry Guest, cloth, 50 

cents. The Macmillan Company. 
The High History of the Holy Grail, translated by Sebastian 

Evans, Temple Classics. 
Morte Arthure : re-edited for students by Mary McL. Banks. 

Longmans, Green & Co. 

Reading for Young People; 
Stories of the Days of King Arthur, by G. H. Hanson, London. 

T. Nelson & Sons. 
Legends of King Arthur, by F. Warne. An abridgment of 

Malory's Le Morte Darthur. 
Stories from the Wagner Operas, by H. A. Guerber. 
Popular Romances of the Middle Ages, by G. W. Cox. 
Wonder Tales from Wagner, by A. A. Chapin. Harpers. 
The Story of the Rhine Gold, by A. A. Chapin. 



20 

Wotan, Siegfried, and Brunnehild, by A. A. Chapin. 

The Fall of the Nibelungs, translated by Margaret Armour. 

The Court of King Arthur, by W. H. Frost. Scribner's. 

A Garden of Romance, edited by E. Rhys. New Amsterdam 
Book Company. 
Criticism and Interpretation : 

Poetry of Tennyson, by Henry Van Dyke. 

Tennyson, His Art in Relation to Modern Life, by S. A. Brooke. 

Poets and Problems, Part ii., by G. W. Cooke. 

Essays on Lord Tennyson's Idylls of the King, by Harold Little- 
dale. The Macmillan Company. Especially valuable for the 
explanation of terms, references, etc. 

A Study of the Works of Alfred, Lord Tennyson, by E. C. 
Tainsh. The Macmillan Company. 

Victorian Poets, Chapters v. and vi., by E. C. Stedman. Chap- 
ter vi. contains a careful study of Tennyson's indebtedness to 
Theocritus. 

Thoughts about Art, by Philip Gilbert Hamerton ; chapter v con- 
tains a valuable discussion of Tennyson's skill in description. 

Studies in the Idylls, by Henry EUsdale. 

Illustrations of Tennyson, by J. C. Collins. 

Abbey's pictures of the Quest of the Grail. For a small, illus- 
trated catalogue of these pictures, write to Curtis and Cameron, 
Pierce Building, Boston, Mass. 

Classical Echoes in Tennyson, by W. P. Mustard. The Mac- 
millan Company. 

Handbook of Tennyson's Works, by Morton Luce. 

In ** Poems by Tennyson," edited by Henry Van Dyke and D. L. 
Chambers, The Athenaeum Press, — Introduction, III., Tenny- 
son's Use of his Sources ; IV., Tennyson's Revision of his Text ; 
VI., The Qualities of Tennyson's Poetry ; and, in the Appendix, 
the Study of Tennyson's metres. 
The Geography of Arthur and the Historical Arthur: 

King Arthur in Cornwall, by W. Howship Dickinson. Long- 
mans, Green & Co. 



21 

Merlin, or the Early History of King Arthur, by H. B. Wheatley. 

Early English Text Society. The introduction by J. Stuart 

Glennie, "The Old Arthur Land," and "Note," containing 

the opinions of the historian, C. H. Pearson. 
Introduction to the Globe edition of Le Morte Darthur. 
English Histories and Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
For Tennyson's interest in the geography of Arthur's Land see 

Memoir I., 274, 322, 415-16, 460-3. 

BOOKS FOR ADVANCED AND CRITICAL STUDY. 
Older Literature used as Sources, Texts, etc.; 

Le Morte Darthur, by Malory, edited by Dr. H. Oskar Sommer, 
published by David Nutt, London. An expensive and exhaus- 
tive edition, in 3 vols. Vol. iii., Studies on the Sources. 

The Mabinogion, translated and edited by Lady Charlotte Guest, 
published by Bernard Quaritch. 

The Legend of Sir Gawain, by Jessie L. Weston. 

The Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac, by Jessie L. Weston. Pub- 
lished in London, by David Nutt. 

Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory's "Morte d' Arthur," 
No. II. Tristan and Iseult. Rendered into English by Jessie 
L. Weston. New Amsterdam Book Co. 

Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight, edited by Richard Morris, 
Early English Text Society. For the character of Gawain, see 
preface, and also The Flourishing of Romance, pp. 1 14-15 ; and 
English Writers, iii., 279, vi., 59, 240. 

Studies in the Arthurian Legend, by John Rhys, The Clarendon 
Press, for Celtic sources and traditions. 

Morte Arthure, edited by Edmund Brock. Early English Text 
Society. This volume contains the text of Sir F. Madden 's 
" Syr Gawayne," published in the list of books of the Bannatyne 
Club. 

The Inflexions and Syntax of the Morte D 'Arthur of Sir Thomas 
Malory. A study of fifteenth century English, by Charles Sears 
Baldwin. Ginn and Company. 



22 

Popular Studies in Mythology, Romance and Folklore, vol. i., 

Celtic and Mediaeval Romance, by A. Nutt. 
Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, Translation and Essay, by A. Lang 

The Macmillan Company. 
Tennyson's Idylls of the King and Arthurian Story, from the 

XVI. Century, by M. W. Maccallum. 
The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, by Henry Osborn 

Taylor. The Columbia University Press. 
The Flourishing of Romance, chapter iii., by G. Saintsbury. 

Scribners. 

Variations in Tennyson's text : 

The Growth of the Idylls of the King, by Richard Jones. J. B. 

Lippincott Company. 
Variations in Merlin and Vivien. The Dial, May lo, 1901. 

The Epic and the Idyll : 

Short Studies in Literature, by Hamilton Mabie, the Epic, 148-52 ; 

Some mediaeval Epics, p. 153 — 
Early English Literature, by B. Ten Brink. The Hero Saga, the 

Epic, book i., chapters ii., iii. 
Lectures on Shakespeare, by B. Ten Brink. In Lecture iii. is a 

distinction between dramatic and epic qualities. 
Introduction to the Iliad and The Odyssey, by R. C. Jebb. 
A History of Classical Greek Literature, chapters i., ii., iii., by 

J. P. Mahaffy. 
Hegel's Aesthetics, Part ii., chapter viii., edited by J. S. Kedney. 
Introduction to Criticism on Paradise Lost, edited by Albert S. 

Cook. 
Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, with a critical text and 

Translation of the Poetics, by S. H. Butcher. Second edition, 

1898, Macmillan. Discussion of the Epic, pp. 280 — 
The Epic and Romance, by W. P. Ker. 
The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, by Henry Osborn 

Taylor. The Columbia University Press. 



23 

Victorean Poets, by A. C. Stedman, chapters v. and vi., Tenny- 
son's Indebtedness to Theocritus. 
The Beginnings of Poetry, by F. B. Gummere. The Macmillan 

Company. 
The Flourishing of Romance, chapters, ii., iii., iv., by Saintsbury, 

Scribners. 
English Writers, by Henry Morley, vol. iii., p. 279 — ; vol. vi., 

P- 59— » P- 240— 
Contemporary Criticism : 

Four Idylls of the King : The Spectator, p. 125, July, 1859. A 

discussion of Idyllic qualities and form. 
The Epic of Arthur, Edinburgh Review, April 1870. A discussion 

of the dramatic purpose and unity of the series. 
The Arthurian I^egends in Tennyson, Contemporary Review, vol. 

iii., p. 501. 
Correspondent — The meaning of the Holy Grail, The Spectator, 

May 10, 1873. 
The Dramatization of the Arthurian story, The Dial, p. 160, Mar. 

16, 1896, and p. 197, April i, 1896. 
For the allegory in the Poems, see The Contemporary Review, 

January, 1870, (by Dean Alford) ; The Contemporary Review, 

May, 1873 ;„The Spectator, January, 1870 (by R. H. Hutton). 



Topics for Study. 

PRElylMINARY. 

The Poet. 

I. How was Tennyson educated previous to going to the 
university ? 

(i) Years in school. 

(2) Home study, years, teachers, subjects. 

(3) What did he read ? 



24 

Note. — A list of books, by years, with the age of the reader 
indicated, will throw light on the habit and development of his 
mind. 

(4) What did Tennyson teach himself in these years at 
home ? 

(5) How did he learn to write ? 

Note. — A statement of the writing attempted by the lad, show- 
ing subjects, amount, etc., may be made. It is instructive to com- 
pare the results with the amount and kind of composition written 
by high school pupils now, but a generalization as to Tennyson's 
genius or precocity would be misleading without an inquiry in 
regard to other young persons of that generation. 

II. How long a time did Tennyson spend at the university .'' In 
what subjects was his regular work ? 

III. What reading or study outside of his regular work did 
Tennyson do at the university ? 

IV. Who were Tennyson's intimate friends when he was at the 
university ? 

What common interest brought these young men together ? 
In what common pursuits did they find companionship ? 
What permanent results of value accrued to Tennyson from 
these friendships ? 

The composition of Idylls of the King : 

V. When did Tennyson's interest in the idyllic form of verse 
begin ? What early models did he study? 
VI. What Idylls did Tennyson write, beside Idylls of the King? 
Which were earliest? Make a list of Tennyson's Idylls in 
the note-book, with dates of composition or publication. 
VII. When did Tennyson first contemplate the writing of a poem 
on the subject of King Arthur? What, in outline, was the 
earliest form of his conception ? 
VIII. Make in the note-book a list of all the Idylls in the series^ 
showing : 

(i) The time and order of composition. 



25 

(2) The time of publication. 

(3) The Idylls published in one group, in various editions. 

(4) The final order of arrangement. Indicate the Idylls 
that were added after the general plan and arrangement 
had been determined. 

The Epic : 

IX. Define the essential characteristics of the Epic in this 
manner : First, write a definition or explanation of what you 
understand by epic form, from the impression existing in your 
own mind. This definition must be so expressed that it will 
include the great epics with which you are familiar. Secondly ,^ 
consult dictionaries and discussions of poetic form ; make an 
outline of essential characteristics according to authorities ; 
compare with your own, and test by your own knowledge of 
some epic. For references, see bibliography. 

The Idyll : 

X. Define the Idyll in the same manner as the Epic, and consider, 
(i) Characteristics essential to the Idyll. 
(2) Limitations of the Idyllic manner. 

TENNYSON'S ADAPTATION OF THE IDYLL TO ENGLISH 

THEMES. 
Early Attempts : 

XI. (i) When and how did Tennyson become interested in the 
Idylls of Theocritus ? 
(2) What poems represent his first attempts to write an 
Idyll ? 

CEnone : 
XII. For indebtedness to Theocritus, see Stedman's Victorian 
Poets, chapter vi. 
XIII. (i) What is the theme of C^none? 

(2) What is the outline or plan by which this theme is 
developed ? 



26 



(3) Is this plan dependent upon the idyllic setting for 
effect ? 

(4) Why is the narrative in the form of retrospect ? 

The Lotus Eaters : 

XIV. For indebtedness to Theocritus, see above. For a different 
literary treatment of the same theme, see Lowell's ** The 
Mariners," and Matthew Arnold's " The New Sirens." 
(i) What is the theme of *' The Lotus Eaters ? " 

(2) What is the outline or plan by which this theme is 
developed ? 

(3) Is the Idyllic setting essential to the presentation of 
the theme ? Show in detail reasons for your opinion. 

Ulysses : 

XV. (i) Show, as above, theme, outline, or plan of presentation, 
idyllic setting. 
(2) Stedman says that this poem embodies the Homeric 
idea of a hero. What were the characteristics of the 
Homeric hero ? In what lies the special skill of Tenny- 
son's presentation ? 

The Lady of Shalott : 

XVI. (i) Show, as above, theme, outline, or plan of presentation, 

idyllic setting. 

The Palace of Art. As above. 

XVII. This poem is especially suitable for the study of Tennyson's 
liking for allegorical meanings. 

XVIII. (i) In which of the above poems is there a second theme, 

allegorical, or ethical, in meaning ? 
(2) Is the allegorical meaning secondary and subordinate, 
or of chief importance ? 

XIX. How do you define the difference between the allegorical and 
the ethical, in these poems ? Illustrate each from the poems. 



27 

The Coming of Arthur. 

The Old Story: 

1. Arthur's birth ; Le Morte Darthur, book i., chapters i., ii., iii, 
Arthur's marriage ; book iii., chapters i., ii. 

Excalibur; book i., chapter xxiii. 

The Round Table; book iii., chapters i., ii., iii., iv., xv. 
book iv., chapters iv., v. 

The Historical Arthur: 

2. a. From what historical personages have traditions of Arthur 

probably been derived ? 

b. What facts, if any, have been accepted as historical ? 

c. Possible dates. 

Note. — Consult especially the EncyclopcEcLia Britannica, the 
editor's preface to Six Old English Chronicles^ and to Le Morte 
Darthur, Ten Brink's discussion of the growth of the Hero Saga, 
and English Histories. It is not intended that readers shall make 
an investigation of the historical question with a view to arriving 
at a conclusion in regard to the facts of Arthur's existence and life. 
It is desirable, rather, to gain an understanding of the sources of 
the old traditions, and histories, of the manner of their growth and 
the literary habit, in the middle ages, of intermingling fact, tradi- 
tion, and legend, in one narrative. 

The Geography of Arthur: 

3. (i) Locations assigned to Camelot. 

(2) Location assigned to Glastonbury, Joyous Gard, Tintagil, 

Avalon, Lyonesse. 
Note. — Special references on this subject will be found in the 
bibliography. It is one that has attracted some attention, especially 
among Celtic scholars. The reader must remember that many dis- 
cussions are no more than special pleas devoted to showing the 
plausibility of certain theories. The real significance of the ques- 
tion in literature is found in its relation to the origin and transmis- 



28 

sion of the Arthurian traditions, but the topic belongs rather in the 
field of mediaeval, or comparative literature. 

The Coming of Arthur : 

4. Where was the land of Cameliard ? 

5. About how long after the Romans left Britain is the historical 
Arthur supposed to have lived ? 

6. Who were the heathen who troubled Leodogran? Where 
did they come from ? 

Note. — Use a map of England showing the military roads built 
by the Romans, the wall built to keep out the Picts, etc., and notice 
the situation of Leodogran's kingdom. No exact geography should 
be attempted, but these lands of the poet's imagination have a cer- 
tain indefinite correspondence with the map of ancient Britain, just 
as the story of Arthur's wars and adventures is drawn from the 
chronicles of the early historians. Tennyson himself spfent con- 
siderable time in the parts of England where tradition locates 
Arthur and his shadowy city of Camelot. 

7. What is the purpose of the description of the land of Came- 
liard in the beginning of " The Coming of Arthur? " 

8. What is the real subject, or theme, of "The Coming of 
Arthur?" 

9. Where is the beginning of the dramatic action, or plot, of 
this Idyll ? What proves it ? 

10. What was the most important incident in the coming of 
Arthur to aid Leodogran ? Why ? 

11. a. In lines 1-60, what facts or incidents antecedent to the 

beginning of the story are told ? 
b. For each, show what in the beginning of the plot would 
fail of full significance without the mention of antecedent 
facts, and in what way this artistic necessity is met. 

12. What was the immediate result of Arthur's visit to Leodo- 
gran's kingdom? 

13. Two events of great importance in the narrative of the 
Idylls occurred between the return of Arthur from Cameliard 



29 

and the sending of his knights to ask for lyeodogran's daugh- 
ter, — what were they ? 

The Stories of Arthur's Birth : 

14. a. What stories of Arthur's birth are given ? 
b. Where did Tennyson find each ? 

Tennyson's Use of these Stories : 

15. a. What is the literary, or artistic excuse for the introduc- 

tion of these stories in the narrative of "The Coming of 
Arthur?" 
b. Why was Leodogran dissatisfied with the stories of 
Arthur's birth told by the Knights ? 
Note.— This is the story told by Malory and he had it from 
Geoffrey of Monmouth and other historians of Britain ; it was long 
supposed to be literally true. 

16. What three things in the story of Queen Bellicent were most 
important ? Why ? Did she answer Leodogran 's question ? 

17. What was the meaning of the story which the queen had 
from Bleys? 

18. What did Merlin's answer to Bellicent mean ? 

19. What is the meaning of Leodogran 's dream? Did it influ- 
ence his decision ? Explain your understanding of how he 
made up his mind. 

20. Summarize all the facts given about Arthur from his birth 
to the time of his marriage. Which of these did Tennyson 
especially emphasize ? 

21. In what particulars did Tennyson change the order of the 
events of Arthur's life ? Why ? 

22. a. What was Malory's story of how Arthur came by 

Excalibur ? 
b. What allegorical interpretations of Excalibur as a symbol 
have been given ? 
Note. — The numerous Celtic interpretations may be found in 
'* Studies in the Arthurian Legend," by John Rhys. Many of these 



30 

are fanciful. The most interesting symbolic use of Excalibur, and 
of the scabbard is that in King Arthur as played by Sir Henry 
Irving. 

"Greet the dawn, the night is o'er, 
England's sword is in the sea." 

23. Where was Arthur married ? What was Tennyson's reason 
for choosing a place, which does not again appear in the Idylls, 
for the ceremony ? 

Note. — The poem *' Lancelot and Queen Guinevere " isTenny^ 
son's full version of lines 449-51. It should be read here ; what 
was Tennyson's reason for reducing this part of the story, in the 
Idyll, to a mere reference ? 

24. Malory's story of the marriage of Arthur is given in book iii., 
chapters i. and ii. 

a. How has Tennyson changed the story ? Why ? 

b. The most significant thing in Malory's story Tennyson 
has omitted, — why ? 

25. Make an outline showing all the steps in the plot from the 
beginning to the end of the dramatic action of the Idyll. 

26. In what do you find the climax ? 

27. In what lies the conclusion ? 

" The Coming of Arthur " in the Cycle : 

28. What passages of the coming of Arthur are not essential 
parts of the real subject and the plot of the Idyll as a separate 
story? 

If you regard the series of Idylls as a dramatic action, each 
idyll in the series fulfills a definite purpose in relation to the whole ; 
as, in the drama, the act is complete in itself but is a part of the 
play and holds a carefully adjusted relation to other acts before and 
after. In a series in which each idyll has a complete and indepen- 
dent plot of its own the relation of the idyll to the dramatic action 
running through all is loose, and, often, the plots intermingling, 
are intricate, since incidents of importance in the idyll may signify 
little in the cycle ; or, on the contrary, passages which in the idyll 
are mere description, may be of first importance in the cycle. 



31 

29. How do you define the purpose in the cycle, of ' ' The Coming 
of Arthur?" 

30. Which characters in "The Coming of Arthur," are essential 
to the dramatic action of the cycle? The discussion of this 
point must be based on " The Coming of Arthur " only, if it is 
to lead to a critical estimate of whether Tennyson clearly indi- 
cated, in the beginning, the characters that he intended to use. 

31. What plot elements belonging to the cycle are found in " The 
Coming of Arthur? " 

32. There is a certain unity in the arrangement of those elements 
in the Idyll, belonging to the larger dramatic whole, as in the 
single act of a drama. In relation to this unity : 

a. Where is the beginning ? 

b. Where do you place climax and conclusion ? 

33. Show in relation to the theme and plot of each, why the con- 
clusion of **The Coming of Arthur" as a separate Idyll must 
be different from the conclusion of *' The Coming of Arthur " 
as a part of the cycle. 

34. What conditions were essential, in Arthur's mind, for mak- 
ing a kingdom and reigning ? 

35. How do you define the " secret word " and Arthur's purpose ? 

36. Was this purpose understood by his knights ? By the queen ? 
What evidence on this point do you find in the text? 

37. Certain situations have a different value in the cycle plot 
from the one they hold in the idyll. For each of the following, 
show what the meaning, or value, is, {a) in the cycle ; (Jb) i 
the Idyll, with the critical reason for each. 

a. The description of the land of Cameliard. 

b. The stories of Arthur's birth. 
r. Merlin's word. 

d. Bellicent's description of Arthur's crowning. 

e. The pledge between Arthur and I^ancelot. 

f. Dubric's charge. 

g. The song. 

38. At the close of ** The Coming of Arthur : " 



32 

a. What were the king's plans and purposes? 

b. On what agencies did he chiefly rely for carrying out his 
plans ? 

c. From what sources was disaffection most likely to arise ? 

d. Had Arthur enemies, or friends whom he could not trust ? 
NOTK. — The question, here, is one of Tennyson's artistic skill in 

the beginning of his great plot ; the preparation for what is to 
follow must be sought here, and we must ask what possibilities of 
success or failure lie enfolded within the outlines of the narrative 
set down in the Idyll. No part of Malory's story, or of the develop- 
ment in later idylls, is relevant to the discussion here called for. 

GARETH AND LYNBTTE. 
The Old Story: 

Le Morte Darthur, book vii., chapters i.-vi., xiv.-xvii., xix., 

xxi., xxxiv.-v. 
The Round Table, book iii., chapters i., ii., iv. Book iv., 

chapters iv., v. 
The name of the knight in Malory's tale is Sir Beaumains. 

Topics for Study : 

1. What is Malory's story of the origin of the Round Table, 
and of how it came into the possession of King Arthur ? 

2. How did Tennyson change this story ? Why ? 

3. How many seats were about the Round Table ? How were 
vacancies filled ? On what conditions ? 

.4. What were the conditions of knighthood in the middle ages ? 
Upon what in the old conception of knighthood did Tennyson 
seize for his purpose ? 

5. What is the relation of the Round Table to Arthur's purpose 
in the Idylls ? 

6. When Gareth came to Camelot how many seats had been 
filled? 

7. What, in outline, is Malory's story of Sir Beaumains? 



33 

Note. — This outline should be made, either by marking 

Malory's text, or in the note-book, for the purpose of referring in 

the study of the Idyll, to characters, incidents, etc., taken from 

Morte Darthur. 

8. In the cycle plot, there are two reasons for beginning this 

Idyll in a place far from Arthur's court and kingdom, — what 

are they ? * 

Note. — For Tennyson's first location of Arthur's mystical city, 
Camelot, see Memoir ii., 122. Later, he became familiar with tra- 
ditions which localize Arthur in many places in Wales and in 
England, south of the Thames ; the location which seems to 
have been in the poet's mind in the Idylls, apparently, was not so 
far west as Lyonesse. The truth seems to be that the historical 
Arthur, according to the custom of kings, in those days, moved 
from place to place with his followers and all his court. He often 
made a long stay where he halted, hearing and deciding questions 
which, now, would go to some small court of justice, and otherwise 
setting in order the wild populations of his kingdom. In this way, 
certain locations came to be recognized as halting places for the 
King on his journeys, and, for each one, local tradition handed 
down in names, stories, and antiquities, the deeds of Arthur and 
his knights, while those who told the tale believed that here, in- 
deed, was the city of the King. These traditions probably all 
originated in some real connection with Arthur, now impossible to 
trace. 
9. What is the real subject, or theme, of " Gareth and Lynette ? " 

10. In what is the beginning of the plot, or narrative, of this 
Idyll ? 

11. What is the chief element of pathos in the incidents of 
Gareth and his mother ? 

12. What were the ideals of life in Camelot at the time when 
Gareth came ? Do you detect any jarring note ? 

* Topics for Study on the Idylls required for college entrance, in " TTie 
Study of Four Idylls of the King," The Study-Guide Series, maybe used to sup- 
plement those given here. 



34 

13. Has the keystone of Camelot any meaning with reference to 
the Idylls ? + 

14. What is the interpretation of the lines beginning, " For an 
ye heard a music, like enow ? " P. 322, Globe edition. 

Note. — Compare with the references to music in "Palace of 
Art," **Amphion," "CEnone," and Wordsworth's "Power of Sound." 
See also Gayley's Classic Myths, for the building of the walls of 
Troy and of Thebes to music. 

In the presence of the King : 

15. What is the significance of the impression made on the 
youth, Gareth, by the King ? 

16. When Gareth came forward one of the knights saw that he 
was in disguise, — by what marks did he discover his gentle 
birth and breeding ? 

17. Did Tennyson find the characteristics attributed to Sir Kay 
in Morte Darthur? 

18. For what purpose in this Idyll, does he use the character of 
Sir Kay? 

19. For what reason was each one of the three judgments pro- 
nounced by the king selected by Tennyson for use here ? 

20. Tennyson's story of how queen Bellicent sent secretly to 
court is different from Malory's ; What reason for the change 
do you find in the plan of this Idyll ? 

21. In Malory's narrative, who knighted Gareth ? In Tenny- 
son's, who? Why was this change made ? Find the reason in 
the artistic requirements of the plot. 

22. a. Who, in Malor3^'s story, was Linet? 

b. What reasons from a literary point of view had Tennyson 
for developing this character ? 

23. Where did Gareth get his motto ? What is the reason, in the 
Idyll, for emphasizing this motto ? 

24. Make a plot outline of the quest of Gareth from the moment 

t See lyittledale's " Essays onldj-lls of the King," p. 87. 



35 

of his setting forth to the moment in which the object of the 
quest is achieved. 

25. In this outline, trace the changing relation of Lynette and 
Gareth, showing how each step was won. 

26. The Song fulfils more than one purpose in the Idyll : 

a. Trace its relation with the plot. 

b. Show in how many ways it is an artistic expression of 
subtle and pervasive elements of Tennyson's purpose. 

27. What is the significance of each one of Gareth's conflicts in 
the Idyll? In the allegory? 

28. How do you interpret the Cave, the Morning Star, etc ? For 
what purpose are they introduced here ? 

Note. — Littledale discusses the sources from which Tennyson 
borrowed his allegory in his essay on this Idyll. 

29. What is the importance of the quest of Gareth in the full 
plot outline of this Idyll ? 

30. Where is the climax of the dramatic action of the Idyll ? 

31. Where is the conclusion ? 

32. Which ending do you consider the truer art, that of Malory, 
or that of Tennyson ? Find your reasons in the nature of the 
story told by each. 

Gareth and Lynette in the Cycle : 

33. Which characters in "Gareth and I/ynette " belong to the 
cycle ? 

34. What elements of dramatic importance in the cycle are found 
in this Idyll ? 

NoTK. — An outline should be used to show the cycle plot 
mingling with the story ; or, if an outline or plot analysis has been 
made for the Idyll, all parts significant in the cycle may be starred 
or underlined. The relative significance of incidents or characters 
in the story, and in the cycle, should be noted, as in "The Coming 
of Arthur." 

35. What is the " situation " of the dramatic action in the cycle 
at the close of " Gareth and^Lynette "? 



36 

36. Compare the ideals of Arthur, the king, with those of his 
knights, as illustrated in this Idyll. 

37. What little threads of plot from "The coming of Arthur" 
are repeated in this Idyll which seem to point forward ; — that 
is, which seem a preparation for future developments ? Give 
references for each, to lines in both Idylls. 

38. Trace the allegory mingling with the narrative from the 
beginning of this Idyll. Show, in each part, how it serves to 
express Tennyson's purpose. Is the allegorical element most 
significant in the Idyll, or in the Cycle? 

39. What was Tennyson's purpose in placing Gareth and I^ynette 
second in the series of the Idylls ? 

40. Why was Malory's Sir Beaumains well suited to Tennyson's 
purpose ? 

Critical Comparison of Tennyson's Idyll with Malory's text : 

41. a. In Morte Darthur^ book vni., mark in the text an outline 

of the adventures of Sir Beaumains. 
b. Note in the margin all incidents, etc., used in Tennyson's 
Idyll. 

42. Using the above outline for the purpose of comparison, show 
in detail, how Tennyson adapted Malory's story to his own 
purpose, and gave it the significance he wished. Inquire 
especially, 

a. In what he changed or developed characters introduced. 

b. To what incidents he gave new meanings. 

c. Which characters, incidents, or situations in Gareth and 
lyynette are of Tennyson's own invention ? Does his reason for 
these lie in the Idyll, or in the relation of the Idyll to the 
Cycle ? 

d. For what phrases, descriptions, etc. , was Tennyson indebted 
to Malory ? 

e. Present in writing your own estimate and opinion of 
" Gareth and Lynette," especially with reference to Tenny- 
son's indebtedness to Malory's Morte Darthur. 



37 

43- Explain the literary reason for retaining in an Idyll written 
especially with reference to the series, so marked and fantastic 
an allegory as the one that threads this narrative. 

44. Select three or four passages that you think finest in Gareth 
and Lynette. Inquire, in the case of each, why you selected 
the lines: — was it for the thought, or the sentiment? For the 
beauty of expression ? For imaginative qualities ? For what 
reason ? What tests did you use in coming to a decision ? 

Which do you think the nobler poem, "The Coming of 
Arthur," or "Gareth and Lynette " ? In the comparison, 
inquire in regard to, 
«. Poetic qualities and idyllic setting. 

b. Dramatic or epic qualities. 

c . Power of imagination shown. 

d. Nobility of sentiment and style. 

What idyllic passages, or pictures, do you find in " Gareth and 
Lynette ?" In what is the idyllic setting essential to full expres- 
sion of the meaning in the passages chosen ? 



GERAINT AND ENID. PART I. 

The Old Story : 

Tennyson found the material for this Idyll in the Mabinogion, 
in the translation of Lady Charlotte Guest, the first edition of 
which had been published in 1838. For variations in the incidents 
and the arrangement, see Littledale's essay, and compare Idyll and 
translation. This translation makes accessible to the ordinary 
reader one of the most beautiful of the mediaeval tales. It is less 
diffuse and remote in interest than many of the old romances, and 
the reading will richly reward the student who appreciates literary 
qualities, classic simplicity, and beauty in the narrative. For 
the correct pronunciation of Enid, see Memoir, II., p. 125. 



38 

The composition of this Idyll was begun in the spring of 1856 ; 
in July and August of that year, Tennyson, with his wife and chil" 
dren, visited Wales. He halted at Caerleon-on-Usk, and visited 
many places in which traditions of the old Arthurian stories have 
been handed down ; among others, Cardiff Castle, the seat of the 
Sparrow-Hawk in the tale, and later, for six-and-twenty years, the 
prison of Robert, Duke of Normandy. Here, in the midst of the 
scenes of this beautiful story, the poet finished the composition of 
it, and more than one description is a literal transcription from 
nature by this supreme artist in words, of what he saw, and of the 
impressions that moved him. While in Wales, both Tennyson and 
his wife studied with local school masters that they might read 
and pronounce the original Welsh. It was after this that he 
changed the line, " Had wedded Enid " ... to adapt it to the 
Welsh pronunciation of the name. 

In mediaeval times, there were continental versions of this tale, 
but it is generally conceded that it was really of Welsh origin. 

Topics for Study : 

1. Make an outline of the dramatic action of the story of 
Geraint in the Mabinogion showing : 

a. The beginning. e. The theme. 

b. The plot in outline. f. { The relation or value of each 

c. The climax. ^ incident in the advancement 

d. The conclusion. /of the action. 

2. After writing which Idyll did Tennyson begin " Geraint and 
Knid ' ' ? For what purpose was the poem written ? 

3. When were the *' Marriage of Geraint" and *' Geraint and 
Enid " first published ? Under what titles ? 

4. When was the tale divided into two parts ? Why ? 

Note. — The reason for the place of the division, in the poem 
and criticism of it, are necessarily deferred until after the discussion 
of the plot outline. 



39 

5- If the two tales are really one episode in Idylls of The King, 
make, for use in the following topics, a plot outline of the 
two Idylls showing ; 

a. Beginning of action. c. Climax. 

b. Steps of development, d. Conclusion. 

6. What is the theme of these idylls, as a separate incident ? 
In what is the beginning of the plot ? How do you prove it ? 

7. Why was the point of division placed where it is? Show 
from the artistic structure of this story whether either part has 
a separate unity ; whether the incidents admit of division in 
any but the mechanical sense ; if so, whether division at this 
point can be justified artistically or not. 

8. How is the antecedent material introduced and treated in 
these tales .'' What peculiarity, in this respect, do you find ? 
What is the reason for it ? 

9. Note each point where the narrative halts and returns to 
past events ; in the discussion, show {a) the necessity in the 
plot for the antecedent material; {b) the excuse for its intro- 
duction; {c) the place and the manner of resuming the main 
narrative. 

10. Compare the plot outline of the story of Geraint in the 
Mabinogion with the plot outline of Tennyson's Idyll, and 
inquire, 

a. How Tennyson has changed the order and arrangement of 
the story. 

b. How he has varied characters, incidents, etc. 

c. What additions, if any, he has made. 

d. For what details of description, phrase, etc. was he in- 
debted to the Mabinogion ? 

11. For each item, the author's reason with reference to his 
plan, or his meaning, in the Idyll, is the important point for 
consideration. This is note -book work; the particulars, with 
references, should be collected and arranged for use as evi- 
dence in the discussion. 



40 

12. In the " Marriage of Geraint," trace from the beginning, in 
the character of Geraint, every suggestion that points toward 
the " shadow of distrust" which, later, he harbored. 

13. How was this suspicion planted in his mind ? Show whether 
it was wholly wrought out of Geraint's own mind, or whether 
it was fostered and grew by outside influence. 

In Part Two, " Geraint and Enid; " 

14. Enid's disobediences, — what was the cause and the effect of 
each? 

15. How was Geraint convinced of his own error? 

16. Why did Geraint fear to meet the King ? 

17. What was the test of Geraint's restored faith in Enid? 

18. In what is the moment of climax in this story of " Geraint 
and Enid?" 

19. In what is the conclusion ? 

20. In what was Geraint's task in Cornwall similar to Arthur's 
in his kingdom ? In what was it different ? 

In the Cycle : 

21. For what purpose was the story of Enid and Geraint first 
written ? 

22. There is in this Idyll both a double parallel and a double 
contrast : discuss and illustrate each from the Idyll. 

23. What characters and what plot elements belonging to the 
series of the Idylls do you find in the two parts of the story of 
Geraint and Enid ? 

24. Through which characters is this Idyll brought into relation 
with the plot of the series, and what important step in the 
development of the dramatic action of the series is in "Geraint 
and Enid? " 

25. Is the plot of " Geraint and Enid" really subordinate to its 
use in the development of the larger drama of the series ? 

26. Do you find anything in the incidents, the characters, the 
sentiments, which are in the spirit of a civilization later than 
that of the original story ? 



41 

27. Do you find in the story of this Idyll qualities belonging to 
the old romantic tale, but not consistent with the modifications 
introduced by Tennyson to adapt it to his own purpose ? 

Note. — This should be note-book work, with tests carefully 
chosen, or should be omitted. It is not intended in this topic to 
open the way for a discussion which shall be no more than the 
expression of opinion. Real criticism must be based upon the most 
careful and original work on the text, and the discussion should be 
directed to the interpretation of the poet's purpose, and his selection 
and artistic adaptation of means to the end in view. 

28. Do you find an allegorical meaning in the tale of Geraint, or 
in any part of it? What was Tennyson's attitude toward the 
allegorical interpretation of the Idylls ? 

Critical Comparison of Tennyson's Idyll with the story of Geraint the 

Son of Erbin : 

This comparison must be omitted by students who have not a 
translation of the Mabinogion. An inexpensive edition of the 
translation is now published; see p. 19. 

29. Make an outline showing the arrangement of all important 
incidents in the original story: 

30. Where did the story open ? What incident was the beginning 
of the plot? 

31. In the original story, what was the source of Geraint's spleen ? 

32. How, in the old story, did Earl Yniol lose his estate? 

33. How long a time was occupied by Geraint's quest, in the 
original story ? 

34. What is the most important difference between the Idyll and 
the original story in the impression made on the reader ? In 
the inferences to be drawn from incidents ? 

35. Criticize the original story, as a story, in point of subject 
matter, interest, structure, characters, narrative art, literary 
qualities. 

Note. — Bach one of these topics may be made the subject of 
special study and the conclusions may be presented and illustrated 
in written papers. 



42 

36. Arrange parallel outlines of the story of "Geraint, the Son 
of Bbin," and of Tennyson's " Geraint and Enid," with spaces 
in each, for additions, or omissions. 

a. Using this arrangement for reference, show Tennyson's 
selection and omission of incidents for his own use, noting 
especially, omissions, condensations, etc. 
d. Show Tennyson's rearrangement in the order or sequence 
of incidents, in order to make a plot which should express 
his own purpose, or theme. 
NoTK. — Tennyson's purpose must first be defined; then his 
beginning, with the reason for it, should be discussed. After this, 
the steps of the plot, with the introduction of antecedent material 
and the reason for it, — to the climax, and the conclusion. 

c. Note and discuss, giving reasons, changes in incidents 
used, and additions made by the poet. 

d. Note, with illustrations, Tennyson's indebtedness, through- 
out his Idyll, to the older story, in literary qualities, phrases, 
descriptions, etc. 



GERAINT AND ENID. PART II. 

The Idylls of the cycle first composed are more Homeric in 
quality than those of Tennyson's later time. There is in them the 
truth, simplicity, and dignity of the Greek epic. The reader is 
moved with delight in the story pure and simple. He feels a 
certain fidelity to tradition in the narrative, for all the subtlety of 
spiritual meaning gradually unfolded, and sees the noble dignity 
of heroic times woven like a spell around common deeds. Simili- 
tude in two pieces of literature lies chiefly in the spirit that, like an 
atmosphere, pervades the whole. The clear perception of a quality 
so delicate and elusive as kinship in literature may be gained only 
from intimate knowledge of the type, and of that which resembles it- 
The similitude may be a superficial one of phrase or idiom, or it may 



43 

mark a correspondence in atmosphere and deeper meaning. The 
following suggestions for the comparison of the qualities called 
Homeric in these Idylls with the Illiad or the Odyssey, are intended 
to furnish, for those unfamiliar with Greek literature even in trans- 
lation, a means of gaining a practical impression of the character- 
istics of these epics. There has been no attempt to make the study 
exhaustive, but if the reader is able to limit and define the impres- 
sions gained they will have a certain critical value and serve for 
comparison. The points chosen for attention were arrived at by 
noticing and classifying, in " Geraint and Enid," such expressions 
and illustrations as could, with fairness, be said to give a Homeric 
quality, or tone, to the poem. 

The reader should own : The Illiad of Homer, done into English 
prose by Lang, Leaf and Myers; The Odyssey of Homer, by G. H. 
Palmer ; Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, rendered into English prose by 
A. Lang. 

37. Read as extensively as possible in the Iliad and the Odyssey, 
in one or more books of each ; mark for reference : 

a. Figures of speech. 

b. Hyphened adjectives. 

c. Descriptions, especially of persons or acts. 

d. Emphasis placed upon physical qualities, 'or beauty of 
person. 

e. Descriptive phrases of especial beauty or fitness. 

38. Mark throughout the Idylls, *' The Marriage of Geraint," 
and " Geraint and Enid," all passages which seem Homeric. 
Notice especially : 

a. The peculiarity of classical figures of speech. 

b. The use of hyphened adjectives. 

c. The objective and simple character of descriptions. 

d. The epic character of the narrative, the story for its own 
sake. 

e. The dignity given to commonplace acts and the effect ; as, 
" the sweat of their great labor." 

f. The frank admiration of physical qualities and beauty of 
person. 



44 

g. Descriptive phrases of special beauty or fitness. 

h. Note and illustrate such qualities in Tennyson's poem as 
seem suggestive of characteristics of the Homeric narrative, 
distinguished from narratives in later times. 

Figures of Speech in Geraint and Enid : 

39. What do you understand by the Imagination ? Describe and 
illustrate the activity of your own mind which you suppose 
to be the Imagination. 

40. Describe and illustrate the activity of your own mind which 
you call Fancy. 

41. In what lies the essential difference between these two ? 

42. Illustrate from familiar poetry both Imagnation and Fancy. 

NoTK. — Avoid definitions found in dictionaries and rhetorics. 
Without reading and thought, the interpretation of definitions is 
often narrow and misleading. The references given below are to 
discussions that will stimulate thought and that indicate the rela- 
tion of the imagination to creative production. Attention to the 
activity of his own mind is the reader's true source of knowledge on 
this subject. 

References : 

For discussions of Imagination and Fancy see, 

Coleridge's Lectures on Shakespeare , Bohn's ed., pp. 74, 220. 

Coleridge's Principles of Criticism, edited by A. J. George, in 
chapter iii. 

YL.^%(tV^ Esthetics, edited by J. S. Kedney, Part i., chapter viii. 

Wordsworth's Prefaces to the Lyrical Ballads, edited by 

A. J. George. 

Ruskin's Modern Painters, Part 11., chapters i.-iii. 

See also Wordsworth's Essay, " Of Poetry as Observation and 
Description," (Prose Writings). 

43. In your own mind, wherein lies the pleasure of a figure of 
speech ? 



45 

44- Which gives you greater pleasure, an extended figure like 
the simile, or condensed figures, figurative and suggestive 
language, etc ? Illustrate. 

45. In figures of speech, what are the conditions that secure 
beauty and perfection ? 

46. In these idylls, mark all figures of speech. In regard to 
each inquire : 

a. The purpose of the figure, that is, what it illustrates? 

b. In what the beauty lies. 

c. Is the implied comparison defective, or incompletely 
suggested ? 

d. What is the effect of the figure upon the mind ? 

e . Is the figure subordinate to its use in the text, so that it 
does not form a digression, or divert the thought from the 
idea it should illustrate ? 

f. Select three figures that seem to you most perfect. What 
tests do you use in determining? 

g. Select three figures that seem to you most beautiful. What 
tests do you use ? 

h. Select three figures that seem to you best to fulfill the pur- 
pose for which each is introduced. 
i. Which figure of speech in each of these Idylls seems to 
combine all these qualities in the highest degree ? 
Note. — If there is time for it, a study of poetic qualities in 
verse may be introduced here. It should include imagination, 
vision, vowel harmonies, and elements of beauty, not technical. 
The discussion of vowel harmonies in Swinburne's verse, found in 
Victorian Poets, by E. C. Stedman, will be helpful for comparison. 
The essay of R. L. Stevenson, *' On Some Technical Elements of 
Style in Literature, " distinguishes between prose rythm, and 
poetic rythm. 



• 46 

BALIN AND BALAN. PART I. 

1. The Old Story: Le Morte Darthur, book ii. For the 
'* Dolorous Stroke," chapter viii. For Tennyson's prose 
version, Memoir, vol. ii., p. 134. 

Topics for Study : 

2. When was " Baliu and Balan " written ? For what purpose ? 

3. Why was it placed between " Geraint and Enid," and 
" Merlin and Vivien " in the cycle ? See Memoir. 

Note. — An outline of incidents prepared so that the parts used 
by Tennyson may be indicated, is very useful. 

How did Tennyson change the significance of the tale ? By 
what means ? 

At what period of Arthur's life did the adventure of " Balin 
and Balan " occur ? How did Balin get his sword ? 

In Le Morte Darthur, what became of his sword after Balin 's 
death ? 

What is the significance of the title, " The Dolorous Stroke," 
in Tennyson's prose version ? 

8. What is the real subject of the story of Balin and Balan in 
Le Morte Darthur ? 

9. What parts of Malory's narrative did Tennyson omit ? Why? 

10. What did Tennyson add to the story found in Le Morte 
Darthur? Did he change the significance of any of the 
incidents ? 

11. Make an outline of the dramatic action of the Idyll, " Balin 
and Balan." 

12. In what lies the beginning of the action ? 

13. How early in the Idyll is the theme suggested ? What is it ? 

14. Where is the climax ? How do you prove this ? 

15. Wherein is the conclusion ? 

16. Show whether these incidents are really a part of the plot of 
the Idyll and subject to its development : 

a. The conversation in the queen's bower. 



47 

b. The visit to Pellam's court. 

c. The taking of the spear. 

d. Vivien's song. 

17. What elements of noble traged)^ do 5^ou find in this dramatic 
action ? 

18. Which do you think the more perfectly developed tragedy, 
Tennyson's story, or Malory's? Why? 

19. Why did Tennyson choose that Balan's chief aid in over- 
coming his violences should be the thought of the queen ? 

20. How many rumors of the queen's infidelity came to Balin ? 
What was the origin of each ? 

21. Why did he believe Vivien's story? Why did Balan dis- 
believe it? 

22. Why did Tennyson wish Balin to die believing the queen 
innocent ? 

Note. — In this Idyll, again, evil rumor arises concerning the 
queen ; again, the truth of the rumor is not admitted, while its 
force is lessened by Guinevere's lofty character and the ideals 
of life in the court over which she presided. But although Balan, 
the pure, died believing in the parity of the queen, in some 
subtle way Tennyson deepens the shadow of mistrust first breathed 
upon her fair name in the preceding Idyll ; the force of the rumor 
lies in the possibility of its truth, in the foreboding that sinks deep 
in the heart of the reader. 



BALIN AND BAIvAN. PART II. 
In the Cycle: 

23. What is the theme of " Balin and Balan " in the cycle ? 

24. What plot elements belonging to the cycle are found in 
"Balin and Balan?" 

Note. — This Idyll, written last, and with the purpose of mak- 
ing the transition from the time of Gareth and of Geraint to the 
evil days of Merlin and Vivien less abrupt, must have been planned 



48 

with the full conception of the cycle in mind, and should, therefore, 
be studied with especial care in relation to the meaning and the 
arrangement in the full series. In this Idyll, the subject of " Balin 
and Balan," as a separate story, coincides most nearly with 
the purpose fullfiUed by it in the series ; the emphasis, however, 
differs. In the Idyll it is upon the individual, Balin ; in the cycle, 
■upon the incipient demoralization of the court and the influences 
which wrought confusion in the mind of the unhappy knight. 

25. What was Tennyson's theory of lyancelot's early devotion to 
the queen ? 

26. What change in the relation of these two is indicated in this 
Idyll ? Was Lancelot or the queen responsible for this change ? 

27. What was Lancelot's meaning in, " Fain would I be loyal to 
the queen," and in, '' Lo, these her emblems drew mine eyes — 
away ? ' ' 

See also Tennyson's poem, "Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere." 

28. Did the author intend the reader to interpret the rumors 
that came to Balin as evidence of the queen's guilt? 

29. What is the relation, in the plot, or in the artistic back- 
ground, of the incident and the rumors about the queen and 
Lancelot, to the story of " Balin and Balan ? " To the plot of 
the cycle ? 

30. How do you explain, *' Man's word is God in Man," in con- 
nection with the king's "Secret word," and the line, "The 
old order changeth yielding place to new," in the " Coming of 
Arthur?" 

31. How did Arthur test Balin on his return ? " 

32. How is Arthur's definition of ideal knighthood broadened in 
this Idyll?" 

33. What were the characteristics of King Pellam's religion ? 

34. What points of difference from Arthur's religion are empha- 
sized ? 

35. What was Arthur's comment upon Pellam's piety ? 

36. What was Tennyson's purpose in representing King Pellam's 
religion, "adopted in a rival heat," as a kind of parallel to 
Arthur's? 



49 

37- What is the significance of King Pellam and of the holy 
spear in the dramatic development of the cycle ? 

38. Why is the Idyll of " Balin and Balan " the proper place for 
the introduction of this element in the plot? 

39. What difficulties in the accomplishment of Arthur's purpose 
are shown in this Idyll ? 

40. What secret dangers threatening the Table Round and the 
permanence of Arthur's ideal are shown in this Idyll ? 

41. In the allegorical meaning of the Idyll, what do the follow- 
ing represent : 

a. Balin, and his name, " Le Savage ?" 

b. Balin's difficulties in court life? 

c. The Demon said to live in the wood ? 

d. Balin's brother Balan? 

e. Vivien ? 

42. a. What theory of life is represented in Vivien's song ? 

b. Why should this theory of life have had especial force in 
the middle ages? See the note at the close of topics on this 
Idyll. 

Literary qualities : 

43. Which do you consider the finest lines in "Balin and 
Balan?" Why? 

44. Which do you consider the finest narrative or descriptive 
passage in this Idyll ? Why ? 

Note. — In selecting passages, such tests of excellence as have 
already been determined should be applied. In no instance should 
selection be made merely on account of liking or of approval of the 
sentiment. Critical acumen is to be developed only through recog- 
nition of those qualities that determine the inclination of the mind. 

45. How many extended figures of speech do you find in " Balin 
and Balan?" Repeat for this Idyll the study of figures of 
speech and figurative language outlined for " Geraint and 
Enid." 



50 

NoTK. — In the middle ages, two theories of life swayed the 
minds of men. The one was ascetic in nature and taught that 
enjoyment and pleasure are but self-indulgence. Religious 
devotees denied themselves the use of all things that appeal to the 
senses or minister, even indirectly, to bodily appetites and passions; 
they interpreted loving " father and mother more than me " in the 
narrowest sense and turned away from all human ties. On the 
other hand, men of full vitality and independent nature, often- 
times turned from doctrines so repugnant to all natural instincts, 
and asserted the conviction that tastes and passions are but the 
expression of human nature, with the inference that whatever 
ministers to them must, therefore, be right. This position was 
violently condemned as the source of all evil, and many, in passion- 
ate protest against this judgment, carried indulgence to excess and 
justified themselves. The mediaeval romances of Parzival and of 
Tristan represent, typically, these two theories of life, and in 
" Balin and Balan" asceticism and the opposing philosophy of life 
are sharply contrasted. The one finds typical expression in King 
Pellam and his religion; the other pulsates in Vivien's song, which 
expresses belief in the right of the individual to enjoy all good 
things as his natural inheritance. Light, air, the bounty of nature, 
youth, beauty, — all are, and to these correspond natural appetites 
and passions ; these are, therefore, good, and man has been made 
that he may live in the light of the sun. In "Rationalism in 
Europe," Mr. L/Ccky discusses the relation of asceticism and of the 
contrasting theory of life to the development of man. 



MERLIN AND VIVIEN. 

The Old Story : 

Merlin and Nimue ; Le Morte Darthiir, book iv., chapters i., iv. 
King Arthur and the Table Round (Newell), vol. ii., p. 134. 

Merlin's birth; Nennius's History of the Britons, § 39-42, p. 400 — 
printed in Six Old English Chronicles y Bohn's Libraries. 



51 

Geoffrey's British History, book vi., chapters xvii., xviii., in 
Six Old English Chronicles. 

For variations in the text of Merlin and Vivien see : 

The Growth of The Idylls of the King, by Richard Jones, 
chapter ii., 4 and 5; The Dial, May 16, 1901, p. 327. 

For the meaning of unusual words, references, etc., see Little- 
dale's essay on " Merlin and Vivien." For the source of the 
natural scenery in Merlin and Vivien see Memoir, I., 114. 

Note. — The stories of Merlin's birth furnish a remarkable 
illustration of the way in which legends or traditions change, 
develop, and gather new material, as they pass through the hands 
of successive narrators. The story told by Nennius is brief, definite, 
literal ; Geoffrey adds many details. Malory, whose narrative has 
the charm of literary grace, refers more than once to Merlin's 
birth. These narratives are easily accessible and afford the material 
for a bit of literary study that will illustrate the vitality and varia- 
bility of old stories when used as literary material. The story of 
Merlin's agency in the hasty marriage of Uther Pendragon and the 
guardianship of Arthur are even better for the same purpose, since, 
in this instance, Malory repeats the story of older writers with 
little change except in the literary form of the narrative. Compare 
Geoffrey's British History, book vi., chapters xvii.-xx. and Le 
Morte Darthur, book i., chapters i.-iii. 

Dr. Sohmer in his great edition of Morte Darthur discusses for 
scholars the sources of Malory's work. The story of Merlin in 
chapters i-vii., of book i., he condensed from the Merlin of Robert 
de Borron. Dr. Sohmer summarizes also a long antecedent story 
from the same source in which it is related that Merlin had been 
begotten by a fiend who ensnared a holy woman, and thus, from 
his father, the fiend, had the power of understanding all things 
past, and from his mother, the holy woman, the power of fore- 
knowing the future. In this story, also. Merlin revealed ' the secret 
of the two tables ' to Uther Pendragon and persuaded him to build 
a round table with one vacant seat. 



52 

Topics for Study : 

1. a. Read"Merlinand Vivien," omitting the lines from the 6th, 

" For he that always bare," — to the 142nd, ** The wily Vivien 
stole from Arthur's court." 
b. Read the omitted lines after having read the tale of Merlin 
and Vivien to the end. These lines and a few other short 
passages were added to the poem in 1874 ; in what way do 
they change the significance of the whole ? That is, what 
was the theme or purpose of the poem as first written? 
What is the theme or purpose of the poem as it now stands ? 

2. What would be the true title of " Merlin and Vivien " as a 
separate episode ? 

3. Make a plot outline of the Idyll, "Merlin and Vivien," 
marking the beginning, climax, and conclusion of the dramatic 
presentation. 

4. What part is antecedent to the beginning of the Idyll ? 

5. What are the reasons, from a literary point of view, for intro- 
ducing these steps in the plot as antecedent material jrather 
than in the form of direct narrative ? 

6. What was Vivien's motive in following Merlin ? 

7. What was Merlin's ambition? What was the cause of the 
deep melancholy that drove him from court ? 

8. In what words of Merlin, if in any, do you find a double 
meaning ? Explain the meaning of the words in Merlin's 
understanding of them. To fulfill what purpose did Tennyson 
give them double meaning ? 

9. To what weakness of character did Vivien appeal in her 
efforts to overcome Merlin ? 

10. In what is the climax of her attempt ? 

11. What emotions did Tennyson portray in "Merlin and 
Vivien? " Trace and note in sequence the different phases of 
emotion described in this Idyll, as you would trace the devel- 
opment of a plot. 

12. With what feelings do the emotional elements of " Merlin 
and Vivien ' ' affect the reader ? 



53 

13- In the allegorical interpretations of the Idylls, for what does 
Merlin stand ? What is the significance of his death ? 

14. What do you understand Tennyson's interpretation of the 
allegorical meaning to have been ? 

15. What was Malory's story of Merlin's death ? Notice also the 
story of the enchantment of Merlin used by Arnold in "Tris- 
tram and Iseult ? ' ' 

16. Who was Nimue in Malory's tale ? What was her character ? 

17. What incidents and what characters in " Merlin and Vivien " 
are taken from the Le Morte Darthur? What has Tennyson 
added or changed ? In each instance, for what reason ? 

Note. — The reasons for changes or additions must be found in 
the conditions necessary for the development of the dramatic pur- 
pose, or in the aesthetic relation of literary and poetic qualities to 
the central purpose of the author. The topic should be studied 
analytically with the aid of the note-book. The critical questions 
involved can be discussed with profit only on the basis of exact 
knowledge of the texts of Tennyson and of Malory. 

18. How did Tennyson secure the atmosphere, or setting, in the 
sense of tone-color, that he creates in this Idyll ? What was 
his object in it ? 

In the Cycle : 

19. What is the true subject of " Merlin and Vivien " as a part 
of the cycle ? 

20. What plot elements of the cycle are found in " Merlin and 
Vivien?" 

21. What is the relation of the death of Merlin to King Arthur's 
purpose ? To the queen? 

22. Select in " Merlin and Vivien " four descriptions which seem 
to you most beautiful; in the case of each ask: 

a. In what lies the beauty ? 

b. How is the description related to the narrative, and to the 
main purpose of the Idyll ? 



54 

The Queen's Error : 

23. Trace from the beginning of the cycle the steps by which the 
queen's error has been brought before the reader. 

a. " In the Coming of Arthur." 

b. " In Gareth and Lynette." d. " In Balin and Balan." 

c. "In Geraint and Enid." e. "In Merlin and Vivien." 

Questions: 

24. At the close of " Merlin and Vivien," has any real error of 
the queen been brought to light ? 

25. At the time of Merlin's death, what changes had taken place 
in Arthur's court since his crowning ? To what causes were 
these changes due ? 

The distinction between Idyll and idyllic : 

" Vision " may be described as a little picture created at once,, 
having a certain unity, or organization of detail. This little picture 
may be incidental to the narrative and serve to adorn it harmoni- 
ously, or it may be so intimately a part of the incidents that the 
figures and acts of the story mingle with the natural setting and 
both together compose perfect pictures which are essential in the 
narrative itself. It happens, sometimes, also, that a corresponding 
sequence and unity in the phenomena of nature accompanies the 
development of the poetic narrative. When this occurs there is, 
inevitably, a certain dramatic element in the mere setting of the 
picture, in the descriptive passages, which, as the story proceeds, 
tend toward an emotional climax. The perfect artist in poetry so 
mingles the two elements that moments of great dramatic interest 
in the narrative coincide with manifestations of nature which seem 
an expression of the emotion of the action and at the same time 
increase the intensity of it. The field within which this sort of 
composition is possible is a very narrow one, for if undue emphasis 
is given the natural setting it ceases to be subordinate to the central 
figures of the ;^narrative, and we have the pastoral in which the 
human element forms no more vital part than other features that 
compose the scene ; while, if the interest in the action mingling 
with the scene be intense and the issue involve deeply the welfare 



55 

of the actors, our sympathies are stirred until we forget the setting 
and await, breathless, the decision of fate ; but this is no longer the 
Idyll ; we are moved by the pity and finality and sorrow of noble 
tragedy. In this difference in the relation, or proportion, of ele- 
ments in the narrative and the description, lies the distinction 
between the Idyll as a literary form, or type, and that idyllic 
quality characteristic of certain kinds of verse, or even of prose. 
The Idylls, "Merlin and Vivien," and *' lyancelot and Blaine," 
invite, more than others of the series, study with reference to criti- 
cal definition of the distinction between the Idyll as a literary type 
and those idyllic beauties that so appropriately adorn many varieties 
of composition. Preliminary study of " Merlin and Vivien " for 
this purpose is suggested in the topics given below. For a contin- 
uation of this discussion see page 63, in the study of " Lancelot and 
Elaine." 
Idyll, or Idyllic : 

a. Make an outline of those scenes in " Merlin and Vivien " 
which are a setting of the action. 

b. Make an outline showing the dramatic elements of transi- 
tion, change, etc., in natural phenomena which accompany 
the incidents of the story. 

c. Show from these outlines and from the poem the use made 
of the setting and phenomena of nature to excite, or to 
accentuate emotion, or to create atmosphere. 

d. Trace the successive phases of nature used as setting for the 
narrative, through the poem, to show whether they have an 
arrangement and unity of their own. 

e. Show at what critical times action and phenomena of nature 
are so intertwined as to be inseparable. 

/. Is the action, or plot, at any time determined by natural 
phenomena ? 

Note. — This is necessarily note-book work, but the outlines 
should be merely memoranda, showing exhaustively, and in 
sequence, every illustration in this Idyll falling under the topic, 
and when completed should serve as the basis of critical discussion, 
which may be either oral, in class, or written. 



56 

I^ANCKIvOT AND BLAINE. 
The Old Story : 

Le Morte Darthur, book xviii., chapters viii.-xx. 

Note. — In Malory's narrative, four Blaines are mentioned; 
Blaine, King Ban's wife, mother of Sir Lancelot, named Galahad 
Lancelot ; Blaine, wife of Nentres, king of Garlot ; Blaine, daughter 
of King Pelles, and mother of Galahad, son of Lancelot; Blaine le 
Blank, of Astolat. 

The story of Lancelot and Blaine begins with a picture and the 
statement of a fact ; after this the poet goes back to the very begin- 
ning of his tale : 

1. Make an outline of the story from the beginning to where 
Tennyson resumes the narrative of Lancelot and Blaine, in 
line 397. 

2. In the antecedent material, lines 28-397, what is the peculi- 
arity of the arrangement ? Show graphically, by outline, or 
diagram, the dependence of each new antecedent, and in the 
discussion consider ; 

a. The point of introduction. 

b. The reason for it in the artistic plan of the Idyll. 

c. The literary devices used as excuse for it, and what marks 
the end of it. 

3. In this antecedent material, what parts of it belong in the 
larger story of the cycle ? 

4. In what is the beginning of the plot of this Idyll ? What 
proves this .? 

5. There are in this Idyll several stories intermingled ; the out- 
lines of each are so clear that from the poem a narrative 
sequence may be arranged for more than one of them. 

a. In Blaine's story, in what was the real beginning ? 

b. In the story of Lancelot, as told in this Idyll, where was 
the real beginning ? 

c. In the story of the Queen's jealousy, in what was the 
beginning ? 



57 

6. The description of Lancelot's entertainment in Astolat may 
be treated as a short story and compared with the story of the 
entertainment of Geraint by Karl Yniol and his daughter. 

a. Outline this story from the coming of Ivancelot to his 
departure. 

b. Show in detail from this story how Tennyson accounts for 
Blaine's "fantasy." 

c. What touches reveal the character of Lancelot ? 

d. Compare : 

(i.) Enid and Elaine. 

(2.) Geraint and Lancelot. 

(3.) The change in Arthur's court since the time of Geraint, 

as shown in this Idyll. 

(4.) The relation of either knight to the king. 

e. How many times in this story is the beauty of the scene 
enhanced by the natural beauties associated with it ? Give 
the list of instances and discuss each briefly. 

7. Why is the reader more interested in going with Lancelot 
when he leaves the castle than in staying with Elaine ? 

8. In the descriptive narrrative of this incident, what impres- 
sion, what atmosphere, did Tennyson wish to create from 
many complex elements in the mind of the reader? 

9. In the description of the ride of Lancelot and Lavaine, what 
points did Tennyson wish to impress on the reader ? 

10. What part of the journey remains most clearly defined in the 
readers' mind ? 

11. What was the poet's artistic purpose in the atmosphere and 
setting of this journey ? 

12. Where was the court when the joust for the diamonds was 
proclaimed ? 

13- Where, geographically, was Astolat ? 

14- Where was the tournament held ? 

Note.— Malory gives the geographical situation of these places 
in book xviii., chapter viii. Tennyson follows Malory in his geog- 
raphy, but the reader should note that the modern spelling of 
Malory's ' Gilford ' is Guilford. 



58 

15- Does the description of the tournament contribute to the 
development of the plot in the Idyll ? In the Cycle ? Give 
points in detail. 

i6. In what lies the artistic skill of the description of this joust 
for the diamonds ? 

17. Analyze the impression of life in Arthur's court at this time 
and show from whence each element of it is derived. 

Gawain's quest ; the trust betrayed : 

18. a. Why did Gawain go to Astolat? 

b. Discuss the character of Gawain. 
(i.) In previous Idylls, 

(2.) In his relation to Arthur, 
(3.) In this story, 

(4.) In Tennyson's story, in what lay the root of failure in 
Gawain's character? 

c. When Gawain returned to court, 

(i.) How did the king receive his report ? 

(2.) What was the effect of the news that he brought ? 
Note. — In the earliest versions of the Arthurian legends 
Gawain was the ideal of honor, courtesy, and virtue, trusted and 
beloved of the king. In later versions, especially in those modified 
by ecclesiastical influence, his character underwent a remarkable 
degeneration ; he becomes treacherous, cruel, sensual, Malory 
compiled his romance from various sources without taking the 
pains necessary to reconcile inconsistencies ; hence, it is the earlier 
Gawain who appears in one book, and the later in another, accord- 
ing to the source from which the story is translated, or adapted. 
Tennyson in Idylls of the King^ disregards even more than Malory 
the just aspect of the characters in the stories he borrows, and more 
than once, for his own artistic end, he has given a sinister meaning 
to a beautiful mediaeval tale originally designed to express simply 
some natural impulse of human nature. Gawain is thus a victim 
of poetic necessity, and the explanation of the role assigned him 
must be sought in the purpose and unity of the series regarded as 



59 

a carefully planned and consistently arranged whole. References 
for advanced students of this topic are given on p. 21. 

The Quest of Elaine : 

19. a. The excuse for it; the real reason. 

b. When did Elaine first guess that Lancelot ' loved her not '? 

c. Could the knight have prevented the maid from setting 
her heart upon him ? 

d. What was the nature and source of Lancelot's love for 
Elaine ? 

20. What purposes in the development of the plot does Elaine's 
quest serve ? 

21. What incident in the quest is most significant ? What criti- 
cal test shows this ? 

22. Is Elaine's request for love a blemish in a beautiful character ? 
What was the author's purpose in that incident ? 

The Queen's Anger : 

23. a. Trace the relation of Lancelot and the queen as shown in 

each Idyll from the beginning. 

b. From what sources did danger threaten them at this time ? 

c. What moved Guinevere to throw away the diamonds ? 

24. How did the king understand Elaine's letter? 

25. What was the effect of the letter upon Lancelot? Upon the 
Queen ? 

26. How did the king understand the "homeless trouble" in 
the eyes of Lancelot? What remedy did he propose? 

27. Three causes of grief wrought in Lancelot's mind as he sat 
by the river; which one seems to you the bitterest root of grief ? 

28. What is the theme of the Idyll as a separate episode ? 

29. Where do you find the climax of the dramatic action ? 

30. In what lies the real conclusion of the action ? 

31. What is the true relation of Elaine to Lancelot ; that is, in 
his life, what does she represent? 



6o 

32. In the story of Elaine's life, what would be the climax? 
What the conclusion ? 

In the Cycle : 

33. What is the theme of this Idyll in the cycle? 

34. Make an outline of the plot elements belonging to the cycle. 

35. Compare the cycle plot, in " Lancelot and Elaine " with 
that of the episode : 

a. The beginning of each : show why one beginning is found 
at a point different from that of the other ? 

b. Arrangement of antecedent material, — how does this differ 
in the two plots ? Why ? 

c. Theme : what is it in each ? 

d. In what essential steps do the two plots differ ? Explain 
the reason for each difference. 

e. Climax : in what is the climax of the part of the plot 
belonging in the cycle ? 

f. Conclusion : show the relation of the conclusion in the 
episode to that of the plot elements belonging in the cycle. 
In each conclusion, show the critical reason that confirms 
your opinion. 

36. What is the purpose of the character of Elaine in the cycle ? 

37. Why were Percivale and Galahad the knights to lift Elaine's 
body? 

38. What is the importance of the barge in the story of Elaine's 
life? 

39. What purposes in the cycle plot does the barge fulfill? 

40. How does Tennyson account for the queen's loving Lancelot 
instead of Arthur ? 

41. What was the queen's own excuse for letting her love decline 
upon Lancelot? 

42. What was Lancelot's own conception, in the beginning, of 
his love for the queen ? 

43. How was his resolution broken ? 



6i 

44. Had Arthur, at this point, any suspicion, either of the queen, 
or of Lancelot ? 

45. Analyze the inner strife of Lancelot's heart with which 
this Idyll conclvides, showing the elements of it. 

Note. — The conclusion of the drama enacted must be sought in 
an act, but in Tennyson's Idylls, subtly complex, the inner strife 
is truly a plot element, and its significance here must be in relation 
to the deeper meaning of the series. In Malory's story, this inci- 
dent of Elaine follows the queste for the Grail ; Tennyson shows 
fine artistic skill in placing it before that time. Lancelot's query 
"would I, if she willed it?" gains peculiar force from his pre- 
science of the time of trial coming on, and by a word, the poet 
reveals, deep in the heart of the knight, a redeeming love of 
holiness. 

46. Characteristics of Lancelot: This is note-book work, a 
character study of Lancelot, with references from the begin- 
ning of the Idylls, for the purpose of showing Tennyson's 
intention in the presentation of this character. Question for 
discussion ; — is Lancelot the real hero of the Idylls, the greatest 
knight? 

47. Characteristics of Arthur : Note-book work as above. Ques- 
tion for discussion ; is Arthur an idealization, or has he 
passions and emotions in common with his fellows ? In the 
author's plan, what is the relation of Arthur's character to the 
characters of the other knights ? 

48. Characteristics of Guinevere : Question, is she the great 
queen ? What was her relation to Arthur's plan ? 

NoTK. — In this Idyll there is a closer relation than in any since 
'*The Coming of Arthur " between the artistic subject, or theme, of 
the Idyll as a separate incident and the purpose of the story in the 
cycle . For this reason, the mingling plots are more intricate in their 
arrangement. In the Idyll, the true subject is Lancelot and Elaine \ 
Sir Lancelot's relation to Blaine, which was her death, was to him 
the revelation of all that he had lost through the guilty love he bore 
the queen. The emphasis is placed upon the virginal love of the 



62 

maid which, had he, the great knight, been also pure, might have 
brought him peace and "noble issue." In the greater story of the 
cycle, * the face that came between ' assumes significance ; the love 
of Guinevere, to which, once given, he must be utterly loyal, was 
the active cause that prevented any love, that of Elaine, or of 
another, in his heart. It was love's lost opportunity and love's curse 
that weighed upon the man who knew that he was also a disloyal 
friend, as he sat in * a cove by the river ' and strove with himself. 

LANCBlvOT AND EI/AINE. PART II. 

A few years since, ** Lancelot and Elaine" was presented in 
tableaux-vivant by the Boston Alumnae of Smith College. The 
selection and description of suitable tableaux may be used as a study 
of the accuracy and detail of Tennyson's descriptions. The limita- 
tions of tableaux and also of pictorial art for the presentation of 
narrative should be considered ; the sequence of incidents in the 
poem, on the one hand, and of the scenes selected on the other, 
should be compared for the purpose of discovering the conditions 
imposed by each form of art. In Thoughts About Art^ by Philip 
Gilbert Hammerton, chapter v., " Word Painting and Color Paint, 
ing," the student will find a most suggestive discussion of the 
limitations of pictorial and of literary art. There is also a discussion 
of Tennyson as an artist in word-description, in which he is com- 
pared with Ruskin, Shelley, and Wordsworth. 

Tableaux may be given dramatic significance by the selection 
of scenes coinciding with moments of dramatic importance in the 
plot, or they may be arranged as idyllic pictures in which the scene 
suggests the narrative to those familiar with the poem. The 
requirement of art in tableaux is parallel with that of pictorial art ; 
the scene must have a certain significance and be composed to 
express this meaning clearly ; every smallest detail must be arranged 
with reference to this purpose, and there must be unity such that 
the parts compose to the eye a single effective picture, beautiful to 
look upon, and full of meaning. 



63 

49- If the tableaux of scenes in *' Lancelot and Blaine" are to 
form a sequence, three subjects are possible : 

a. The story of Elaine's hopeless love. 

b. The Queen's Jealousy. 

c. Lancelot's story : ' The face that came between.' 

As a study in narrative sequence : 

50. a. Make from this Idyll a separate outline for each of these 
subjects, as a narrative. 

b. Show the completeness and unity of your arrangement of 
incidents by pointing out the beginning, the climax, the 
conclusion, for each subject. 

c. In selecting scenes to represent any one narrative sequence 
given above in the form of tableaux, what changes in 
arrangement, etc., would be neccessary? 

Note. — These changes will be such as arise from the limitation 
of pictorial art as a means of narration. 

IDYLLIC QUALITIES IN LANCELOT AND ELAINE. 

The poem, Lancelot and Elaine, is full of pictures in words* 
and of bits of description which carry the imagination far afield, — 
the wild wave, "green glimmering toward the summit;" the 
"poplars with their noise of falling showers;" "the vine clad 
oriel;" "the pictured wall." In study of these passages, there is 
an opportunity to fix in the mind the difference between the idyllic 
picture which is essential to the progress of the narrative and those 
bits of description that serve merely as a setting, background, or 
accompaniment of the tale. The words idyll, or idyllic, as signify- 
ing a type of poem, or a poetic quality, should be avoided. The 
meaning connoted by these terms is most composite and difi&cult of 
definition. The teacher herself, if without special advanced train- 
ing, may be pardoned for hesitation or uncertainty in these distinc- 
tions. Everyone who reads, however, may select from the narrative 
those exquisite descriptions which, like the picture of the artist, 
have an organization and arrangement of detail significant in mean- 



64 

ing. The material is that of the artist ; the meaning is an essential 
element in the narrative. Such a picture is the one in which the 
maid of Astolat stands by the gate, her bright hair blown about her 
face ; such another is the description of Blaine appearing before 
Lancelot in the early morning while he thought, " he had not 
dreamed she was so beautiful." This passage might be reckoned 
a bit of pure description, — the morning light, the face of the maid, 
innocent and fair as an opening blossom, rapt with the love that 
was her doom, — were it not that the moment is of significance in 
three lives. Elaine gazes on the face of her knight as if it were a 
god's and thereafter would choose death rather than let her love 
decline on any other than God's best and greatest. Lancelot, see- 
ing her so sweet and true, realizes for a moment that such a love as 
hers might have brought him happiness and " noble issue, sons 
born to the glory of his name and fame." Here, also, the rumor 
that stirred such bitter pain in the heart of the queen took its rise, 
in the acceptance by Lancelot of the sleeve embroidered with pearls. 

The critical test should be found in the intimacy of the rela- 
tion. The fact that a poem contains beautiful descriptions does 
not make it an Idyll. The idyllic setting must be essential to the 
proper presentation of the subject, and the narrative must be at- 
tuned in spirit and in the manner of telling to the background, or 
setting. 

Written descriptions of scenes or studies will aid greatly in 
defining the quality and use of the word-pictures ; these descrip- 
tions should take the form of imaginative memoranda for the artist 
who is to illustrate the text, and details merely suggested or im- 
plied in the poem, should be fully specified in the directions. 
Incidentally, this sort of composition will define an essential differ- 
ence between description in words and description with pencil or 
brush. When the significance of the picture is an important ele- 
ment in the story this should be suggested and all directions 
should aim at an arrangement of detail in the portrayal that will 
emphasize the meaning. For other pictures, the writer of direc- 
tions should simply define the dominant note or purpose in the 



65 

description ; in descriptions that are little pictures by the way, the 
inquiry must be for the impression the poet wished to convey ; for, 
in Tennyson's verse, each bit holds some intimate relation to the 
whole poem. 

The order of selection for this study is suggested below but the 
successful result will depend upon the time given to the passages 
chosen by the pupils, and the imaginative realization of the detail 
in each. Written descriptions of scenes or studies will aid greatly 
in defining the quality and use of the word-pictures in the poem. 
These may take the form of memoranda for an artist who is to illus- 
trate the text. Freedom must be granted in the imagination of 
details merely suggested, or implied, in the poem.* 

The order of selection for this study is : 

51. a. All pictures which forma part of the narrative; such as 

the picture of the queen throwing away the pearls. 

b. All pictures which, if painted, would involve some com- 
position or arrangement of parts; such as King Arthur at 
the tournament. 

c. All descriptions which maybe called studies ; for instance, 
of the faintly shadowed track winding up where the towers 
of Astolat showed against the western sky. 

52. Do you consider, after this study, the poem, " Ivaucelot and 
Blaine," an Idyll, or an idyllic poem? 

Note. — See also the topics given on pages 54-5, " Merlin and 
Vivien," for study of idyllic qualities, and of the Idyll as a literary 
form. Use the same topics here, in addition to those given above as 
tests, and in the result arrange a critical comparison of the two 
poems with illustrations and argument. 

53. What emotions did Tennyson attempt to portray in Lancelot 
and Elaine ? 

Note. — Trace and note the different phases of emotion de- 
scribed or suggested, as you would trace a plot development. 
Compare with " Merlin and Vivien " in this respect. 

* In part, quoted from an essay by the editor on the teaching of I^ancelot and 
Blaine. 



66 

54- Compare " Ivancelot and Elaine " with " Merlin and Vivien," 
in regard to : 

a. Iviterary qualities. 

b. Idyllic setting. 

c. Dramatic or narrative interest and power. 

d. The presentation of character. 

e. The description and suggestion of emotion. 

/. The appeal to the imagination: — how do you test the poem 
in regard to this quality ? 

Note. — These two poems are especially fine for critical com- 
parison|in that the one presents a beautiful and pathetic story that 
enlists the sympathy of all, while the other reveals the secret work- 
ing of evil influences, and repels. The reader must, therefore, 
distinguish between liking and admiration and those qualities that 
arise from a fine literary sense, creative genius, or perfect mastery 
of the means of expression. 

The individual should select but one of the topics suggested 
and on this prepare her study, which may be presented either as a 
brief discussion from a carefully prepared outline, or as a written 
paper. 

55. Mark in this poem any passages remarkable for Visio7i. 

56. Select the finest extended descriptive passages, and name 
them in order of excellence in beauty and literary quality, 
with reasons for your judgment. 

57. Do you notice any qualities, or characteristics, belonging 
especially to Tennyson's descriptions? 



67 

THE HOLY GRAIIv. 

NOTK. — For the growth of the Grail Saga, see Ten Brink's 
Early English Literature, pp. 171-4 ; The Flourishing of Romance, 
chapter iii.; English Writers, book iii., pp. 120-148. A good trans- 
lation of Le conte du Grail is published in the Temple Classics. 
The translator says that "In very truth, the story of the Holy 
Grail here told is not only the most coherent and poetic of all the 
many versions of the Legend, but is also the first and most au- 
thentic." 

For Tennyson's hesitation in regard to this Idyll, see Memoir, 
ii., p. 126. For his interpretation of his own work, see Memoir, ii., 
63, 65, 126-7, 53. 
The Grail in Malory's Le Morte Darthur : 

The birth of Galahad, book xi., chapters i., ii., vi., viii. 
Galahad knighted, book xiii., chapters i., ii., iii., iv., v. 
Galahad takes the siege, book xiii., chapters iii., iv. 
Galahad's adventures, book xiii., chapters ix., x., xii., xiii., xvii. 

book xviii., chapters i.-xiv., xviii.-xxiii. 
Lancelot's madness, book xi., chapter viii. 

book xii., chapters i., iv., v.-x. 
adventures, book xiii., chapters viii.-xx. 
book XV., chapters i.-vi. 
Percivale's life, book i., chapter xxii. 
book X., chapter xxiii. 

book xi., chapters xi.-xiv.; xi., chapters vii.-viii. 
book xiii., chapter iii., and book xiv. 
Percivale's adventures, book xi., chapters x., xii., xiii., xiv. 
book xii., chapter viii. 
book xiv., chapters i.-vi., x. 
book xvii., chapter ix.-xi. 
Percivale's sister, book xvii., chapters ix.-xi. 
The departure, book xiii., chapters vi.-viii. 
Gawain's adventures, book xvi., chapters i.-v. 
Sir Bors' adventures, book xvi., chapters vi.-xvii. 
See also Arthur and the Round Table, by W. W. Newell. 



68 



PREI.IMINARY TOPICS. 

The Tradition of the Grail : 

1. Its historical origin. 

2. How the Grail came to England and the traditions of its 
place of concealment, and its miraculous powers. 

The story of the Grail in literature ; 

3. A historical sketch for general information and for refer- 
ence. 

The story of the Grail in art : 

4. This topic is suggested here merely for illustration ; the pic- 
tures of Abbey's mural decoration in the Boston public library, 
and the stage pictures of Wagner's Parzival, are especially 
interesting. 

TENNYSON'S OUEST OE THE HOIvY GRAIIv. 

5. Read the entire Idyll for general outline, impression, and 
beauty, before beginning special study. 

6. What is the point of view from which the plot is presented ? 

7. For what reason was this point of view chosen by the author ? 

8. What supernatural powers were attributed to the Grail? 
Note. — The supernatural powers of the Grail, in the belief of 

the middle ages, is an interesting topic for the special student but 
will call for investigation and study in the library far beyond the 
requirements for the critical study of Tennyson's Idyll. 

9. What traditions about the Grail did Tennyson make essen- 
tial to his dramatic presentation ? 

10. Where is the real beginning of the plot ? 

11. When the Grail returned to earth, who had seen it first? 
The fulfillment of what conditions brought the vision ? Who 

was chosen next ? Why ? 

Note. — For the condition of receiving the vision in Malory's 
tale, see book xiii., chapter viii. 



69 

12. When the Grail re-appeared among men, what means was 
chosen for transmitting zeal for this quest from person to per- 
son ? Why ? 

13. Which is significant in the plot, Arthur's absence when the 
Grail appeared, or the cause of it? 

14. In Malory's story, where was the king at this time ? Morte 
Darthur, book xiii., chapter vii. 

15. How does Tennyson's description of the appearance of the 
Grail differ from Malory's? Morte Darthur, book xiii., chap- 
ter vii. 

16. What was Arthur's thought about the Grail ? How do you 
explain the difference between his attitude toward the quest 
and that of his knights ? What is the meaning in lines 293- 

17. Why had the Siege Perilous never been filled ? Had any 
attempted to sit in it ? 

18. What is the significance of the " Siege Perilous" in the plot? 
What is the meaning of it allegorically ? 

19. Has there been any special preparation for the subject of this 
Idyll in previous Idylls ? 

NoTK. — Seek the answer to this question in study of every 
reference, in previous Idylls, to the religion of King Pellam. The 
ascetic devotees of mysticism, in the dark ages, looked for some 
miraculous source of healing for the perils and evils of the time. 
It was the secret thought of the king that, when the hearts of men 
became clean ' the holy thing ' would return and dwell, once more, 
on earth ; in the condition, lo ! in the clean hearts, lay the secret 
of the world's healing. 

20. How do you define and explain the character of Galahad and 
the feeling of the knights toward him ? 

21. What is the significance of placing the description of Mer- 
lin's hall in close connection with the dispersal of Arthur's 
knights on this quest ? 

22. What is the connection between the intimacy of Ivancelot 
and the queen, and Lancelot's desire to join the quest for the 
Grail ? 



70 

23- Why is the queen's word, " this madness," introduced at the 
point of the narrative where it is found ? 

24. Tennyson has changed the order of events from the time of 
the appearance of Galahad to the departure of the knights, and 
in so doing he omits the going to the minster to hear service, 
which Mr. Abbey has chosen as the subject of one of the largest 
of his pictures. 

a. What, in outline, is the order of incidents as given in Morte 
Darthur? 

b. What was Tennyson's reason for changing this order, and 
for omitting the service in the Minster ? 

Note. — This reason must lie in the significance of this quest of 
the Grail in the large drama of human effort and experience, un- 
folded, for the attentive mind, idyll by idyll. Tennyson's indebted- 
ness to Malory in the description of the knights riding through the 
streets amidst weeping, is marked. 

Percivale's Quest : 

25. Tennyson once said that the key to the mystical treatment 
of his subject in this Idyll is to be found in a careful reading 
of Sir Percivale's vision, and subsequent fall, and nineteenth 
century temptations. 

a. What special hindrance or difficulty in the way of Perci- 
vale's success in the beginning of his quest? 

b. What temptations beset him ? How was each overcome, or 
escaped? What is the allegorical meaning of each ? 

c. How did Percivale become worthy of the vision ? 

26. What means did Tennyson choose for the transmission of the 
passion for the Grail to Galahad ? Why ? 

27. Show in detail if you can, whether Galahad's quest repre- 
sents : 

a. The pursuit of an ideal by an individual, or 

b. Mysticism in religion, in the church, in the middle ages. 



71 

28. Compare Percivale's temptations : 

a. Which appealed most strongly to a man of his nature and 
disposition ? Why ? 

b. Which one did Tennyson represent as falling upon the 
greatest number of persons at the present time ? 

c. How did Percivale finally escape his temptations and win 
a sight of the Grail ? 

29. What is the relation of the quest of Galahad to the quest of 
the other knights ? To Arthur's ideal? 

30. What is the signifiance of the bridge at the close of Galahad's 
quest ? 

31. Why must the quest of Galahad, alone, end in the invisible 
city? 

32. Is the disappearance of the Grail in the city significant in 
the dramatic presentation, in the artistic quality, or in the 
allegorical meaning of this Idyll ? 

Note on the quest of Galahad.— ThQ words of Arthur, lines 885— 
must be read in connection with this account of the disappear- 
ance of the Grail and of Galahad. Tennyson touches lightly, but 
reverently upon the historical significance of the Grail,— in times 
past, it had been seen by such as the nun and this virgin knight ; 
with the passing of mysticism, the Grail had withdrawn into the 
holy city, and thenceforward, represented, the unseen ideals of 
the higher life. The ideal can never be attained; even as the 
seeker catches some glimpses of its beauty, it withdraws until at 
length the follower of the gleam is lured on into the invisible city. 

33. Sir Bors' Quest : 

a. Why did Sir Bors seem least likely to achieve the vision ? 

b. What motive sent him forth ? 

c. To what, in himself, was the distant vision due ? 
Note.— Sir Bors bound by earthly ties of human love, was no 

mystic ; yet led by unselfish devotion to Lancelot, his brother, he 
at length, saw a distant vision of the Grail and found the reward of 
his quest because his love, though physical and human, was full of 



72 

service. Perhaps no other knight fulfilled a part more truly in 
accord with Arthur's ideal. 

34. Sir Gawain's Quest : 

a. What motives sent him ? 

b. Why did he fail in the quest ? 

c. What is the part of Gawain's character in the cycle of the 
Idylls ? 

See also the note on the character of Gawain, page 58. 

35. Did lyancelot hope to achieve the quest when he set out? 
Why did he go ? 

36. What was Malory's story of the adventures of Lancelot? 

37. In the story of Lancelot's adventures as given by Tennyson, 
explain the meaning of each part as far as you are able, and 
show how through them he came near to the Grail. 

38. The judgments of King Arthur : 

a. Name each one and show what in the knight's character 
brought it forth. 

b. Discuss each with reference to the theme of the Idyll. 
Tennyson's interpretation of these judgments is in Memoir, 
ii., 63. 

39. What is the theme of the " Holy Grail " as a separate Idyll? 

40. Make an outline of the plot of the Idyll, and consider the 
significance of each part in relation to the theme. 

41. Where is the beginning of the plot of the story told by 
Percivale. 

42. In what is the climax of this plot ? 

43. What is the conclusion of it? 

The Holy Grail in the Cycle : 

44. Why did Tennyson include " The Holy Grail " in the plan 
of the Idylls ? 

45. What were the difiiculties in the way of its presentation? 

46. How is this purpose connected with the dramatic presentation 
of the plot of which Queen Guinevere is the center? 



73 

47 • What plot elements belonging to the cycle are found in '* The 
Holy Grail " ? 

48. What descriptive passages and character studies in '* The 
Holy Grail " are important parts of the Cycle? 

49. What is the significance of the sculpture that adorned 
Camelot ? 

50. What is the significance of the final withdrawal of the Grail 
from the earth at the close of this quest ? 

51. Who is the hero of the quest in Tennyson's tale ? 
Who is the hero in Le Morte Darthur? 

52. a. What was Arthur's secret hope in reference to the Grail? 

b. How might it have been fulfilled? 

c. What causes, working secretly, rendered this hope futile ? 
In the last poetic paragraph of " The Holy Grail " in which the 

king speaks of his work and his visions Tennyson intended to sum 
up all the spiritual meaning of the Idylls '* in the highest note, by 
the highest of human men." Memoir ii., 90. 

53. a. In these words Arthur suggests the real reason why he 

could not join in the quest, — what was it ? 
b. Arthur also explains the secret purpose and vision of his 
own life ; explain this in your own phrases, or find other 
passages in the Idylls that interpret this one. 

54. What is the meaning of the character of Galahad in the 
cycle ? What was his part in relation to the Knights of the 
Round Table? In relation to Arthur. 

55. What is the importance of " The lioly Grail " in the cycle of 
the Idylls ? Show the relation of this Idyll to the preceding 
ones. How is the special theme of " The Holy Grail" sub- 
ordinated to the dramatic action running through the cycle? 

56. Compare " The Holy Grail " and Wagner's Parzival in : 

a. Theme. c. Ethical purpose. 

b. Plot, or dramatic development, d. Realism and idealism. 



74 

57- Poetic qualities : 

a. What is the prevailing impression or " tone," of *' The 
Holy Grail " ? Show how this impression is imparted, — by 
what artistic or literary qualities. 

b. What passages seem to you most noble ? Why? 

c. What passages seem to you most beautiful ? Why ? 
NoTB. — The topics for critical study of Tennyson's use of the 

old tales maybe found in the references given above, and the topics 
suggested for this study in earlier Idylls will serve as a guide. 
The study by analysis and comparison of noble, or beautiful, or 
pregnant passages of this idyll, may be valuable in increasing ap- 
preciation of literary beauty and in fixing in the mind parts best 
worth remembering. In the selection and comparison of passages 
of special literary excellence, each must use his own tests and 
appeal in the final resort to his own standards of taste. The fol- 
lowing queries, or tests are no more than suggestions, and in using 
them the student must be aware that in the criticism of art, it is the 
spirit and the understanding that give life. 

58. a. Has the passage a noble meaning, or conception, as its cen- 
tral purpose ? 

b. Does it appeal to the imagination, and stimulate the reader ? 

c. Is it marked by " Vision " of a high order ? 

d. Is it complex, composed of meaning folded within mean- 
ing, of many details, or swift transitions ? 

e. Has it organization of parts, is it marked by point of view, 
beginning, progress toward some point corresponding in a 
degree to climax ; is there selection and subordination of 
details in the arrangement ? 



75 
PBIvLBAS AND ETTARRE. 



The Old Tale : 



Le Morte Darthur : book iv., chapters xx., xxi.-xxiii. 

For the character of Sir Gawain and the changes through 
which it passed in mediaeval literature, see The Legend of Sir 
Gawain^ Studies upon its Original Scope and Significance, by Jessie 
Iv. Weston. Also, The Flourishing of Romance, by George Saints- 
bury, p. 114. 

English Writers, by Henry Morley, vol. iii., p. 279 ; vol. vi., pp. 
59, 240 ; and Syr Gawayne and the Greene Kniglit. 

For Gawain in Le Morte Darthur, book vii., chapter xxxv.; 
book X., chapter Iviii. ; book xiii., chapter xvi. ; book xx., 
chapter i. 

''InPelleas and Ettarre," the mingling plots bring forward 
with greater emphasis than heretofore the characters and motives 
of the cycle which is now moving rapidly toward a moment of 
catastrophe. In the Idyll, the theme is repeated in the refrain of 
the song, "He dies who loves it — if the worm be there." Sir 
Pelleas, young, noble, drawn to Arthur's court, as was Gareth in an 
earlier time, in search of an ideal, saw the form of beauty and wor- 
shiped it, and so was lost and needs must die, since his love and the 
queen and all the Table Round were false. The end seems, indeed, 
at hand when we see Pelleas fleeing in the gloom of night and hear 
him yelling " Why, then, let men couple at once with wolves." 
In the cycle, the purpose of this Idyll may be phrased in the words 
of Ivancelot, * The sword between the lips. ' To the guilty queen 
and her lover, the incident was a warning of the dolorous day to be. 
For the reader, it marks the wide difference between the ideals of 
life in Camelot in early days and the evil times that had befallen. 
Topics for Study : 

I. Make, for use in topics given below, a plot outline of Pelleas 
and Ettarre as an Idyll. 



76 

2. The Story of Pelleas and Ettarre in Le Morte Darthur : 

a. Make an outline of this story as given by Malory, showing 
the beginning, antecedent series of adventures, climax, and 
conclusion. 

b. In Morte Darthur, where, in the chronology of Arthur's 
life, is the advent of Sir Pelleas to the fellowship of the 
Round Table placed ? 

c. What drew him to Arthur ? For what reasons did he claim 
admission to the order ? 

3. Which of the adventures used as the material of Tennyson's 
Idylls came earlier in Malory's tale than the advent of Sir 
Pelleas ? 

4. Compare Sir Pelleas, at the time he came to Court, with the 
young knight Gareth when he came, in, — 

a. Original in Le Morte Darthur. 

b. Reasons for coming. 

c. Personal character, ideals, and ambition. 

d. Adventures. 

e. Personal relation to Arthur, the king. 
/. Feeling toward Guinevere. 

g. Influence of the knights of the Round Table, and of the 
Queen upon the young Knight. 

5. For what does the character of Pelleas stand in Tennyson's 
mind ? 

6. Trace the character of Sir Gawain through the Idylls, thus 
far, making a character study. 

7. What reputation had the knight. Sir Gawain, among the 
knights of the Round table in Le Morte Darthur? In Idylls 
of the King ? 

8. Has the character of Ettarre any special purpose with refer- 
ence to Arthur's court and fellowship? 

9. How many times in the series of Idylls has Modred appeared ? 
Each time, for what? Has his appearance here any special 
meaning ? 



77 



lo. What is the real subject, or theme of Pelleas and Kttarre as 
an Idyll ? 



11. In what is the beginning of the plot ? 

12. What is the significance of the madness that came on 
Pelleas ? 

13. What is the meaning of the song in relation to the plot of 
the Idyll. ^ 

14. Where is the climax of this Idyll ? 

15. This Idyll was published in 1869 ; before the edition of 1894, 
Tennyson had added lines 386-406. Show why th ey were added 
by discussing the content of the lines, and also the respects in 
which they modify or interpret other parts of this Idyll ? 

16. What is the conclusion of this Idyll ? 

17. Why could not Tennyson use the denouement in Malory's 
story ? ^ 

In the Cycle : 

18. Mark in the plot outline of the Idyll all plot elements found 
in this Idyll which belong to the series. 

19. What is the purpose of " Pelleas and Ettarre " in the series ? 

20. What incidents, characters, etc., have a different significance 
and value in the series from that in the Idyll ? 

21. In the series, what is the special significance, 
a. Of the Song? 

d. Of the tournament ? 

c. Of the form of madness that came on Pelleas ? 

d. Of the incident between Pelleas and Lancelot ? 

22. In the series, which are the chief characters in this incident ? 

23. What is the climax of the incident regarded as an act of the 
drama ? 

24. What is the conclusion ? 

25. Compare Pelleas with Balin in, 
a. The cause of his madness. 

d. The effect of his discovery on the mind. 



78 

26. What is the significance of the outcome as marking the 
difference between the time of Balin and the time of Pelleas ? 

This Idyll follows "The Holy Grail" and in it the poet in- 
tended to utter a warning of the doom that was coming ever nearer, 
and to summarize, as it were, all the influences working together 
for the disintegration and decay of the Order of the Round Table, 
and, thus, for the frustration of Arthur's hope and purpose. 

27. a. Show analytically all the influences gradually undermin- 

ing the ideals of life and conduct at Camelot ; trace each 
back to the beginning of it, and show what the results have 
thus far been. 

b. At this time, how did the knights regard King Arthur, and 
his ideal of knighthood ? 

c. How did they understand the vows formerly taken ? 

d. How did the knights excuse their own failures ? 

/. What connection was there between this changed attitude 
of the knights and the dispersal to seek the Grail ? 

Literary Qualities : 

28. Select the scenes in "Pelleas and Ettarre " which are 
specially idyllic in setting and description. For each show : 

a. The dramatic elements of the scene. 

b. The idyllic elements of the scene, and the reasons for the 
selection of these ; that is, the character and effect of the 
idyllic setting in relation to the chief purpose of the scene 
in the narrative. 

29. Select the descriptions in "Pelleas and Ettarre," most 
beautiful in themselves, apart from their relation to the narra- 
tive? In what, chiefly, lies the beauty of the passages you 
select ? 

30. Consider critically all figures of speech asking : 

a. Which is most perfect? Why ? 

b. Which is most beautiful ? Why ? 

c. Which appeals most strongly to the imagination ? How 
do you show this ? 



79 

d. Which most perfectly suits the purpose of its introduction 
in illustrating and adorning some element of the narrative? 
Note. — Subordination to the idea for the sake of which the 
figure is introduced is one element of perfect suitability. The term 
*' extended figures of speech" is intended to include all figures, 
but not figurative language, words, or phrases, forming an integral 
part of sentences having another purpose. 

Vowel harmonies : 

31. Select four or five passages which illustrate the beauty that 
may be given to verse by selection and variation of vowel 
sounds. Show why the arrangement pleases. Has the effect 
thus given the lines any special relation to the meaning ex- 
pressed ? Has alliteration any part in the effect ? 
For comparison of harmony of sound in poetry with the same 

quality in prose, see the discussion of this topic in an essay "On 

some Technical Elements of style in Literature," by R. L- 

Stevenson. 

THE LAST TOURNAMENT. 
The Old Story : 

The eighth book of Le Morte Darthur is devoted to the adven- 
tures of Tristram. The references given here are to those parts of 
the tale which have to do with La Beale Isoud. The tenth book in 
Malory's narrative is called the second book of Sir Tristram. 

Book viii., chapters iii., ix., x., xi., xii., xix., xxiv., xxix., xxx., 
xxxi., xxxii., xxxiv. — xxxvii. 

Book X., chapters 1., Iii., Ixv., Ixx. — Ixvii., Ixxxi., Ixxxviii. 

The magic cup, see book viii., chapter xxiv. 

The magic horn, see book vii., chapter xxxiv. 

The Tristram Saga, see The Flourishing of Romance by George 
Saintsbury, p. 116. 

Studies in Arthurian Legend, by Rhys, pp. 12, 37, etc. 

The use of the Tristram story by Arnold in Tristram and Iseult, 



8o 

by Swinburne in Tristram of Lyonesse^ and by Wagner in Tristan 
is not included in this study. It belongs, properly, in a study of 
the Arthurian Legends in modern literature. 

Note. — The incidents, characters, and arrangement of the nar- 
rative in "The Last Tournament " are entirel}^ determined by the 
purpose of the author in the development of the series. As a sepa- 
rate Idyll, it has no unity or completeness of plot structure. In 
the Idyll, Tristram is the central figure ; but in the cycle, his char- 
acter is not essential to the main action ; at most, it fulfills a pur- 
pose of illustration and presents typically, a theory of life which 
Tennyson adapts to his own use. The beautiful mediseval story of 
the love of Tristram and Iseult, he uses as a parallel, in baser and 
more sensual form, of the loves of Lancelot and the great queen, 
thus showing the depth of corruption following in the wake of 
sin, such as theirs. In truth, in the last Idylls of the series the 
dramatic action running through all becomes more important and 
fixes the attention, almost to the exclusion of interest in the sepa- 
rate Idyll. It is, therefore, natural that the author, unfailing in 
artistic skill, merges one story in the other to such a degree that 
the narrative of the Idyll becomes merely the medium used to for- 
ward the great action of the series. In " The Last Tournament,'* 
the semblance of a separate story remains ; The subject of the tale 
is Tristram, the "broken music' of his life being an illustration 
and a proof of the moral contamination which had spread even to 
distant parts of Arthur's realm through the queen and Lancelot. 
In the incident, Tristram is the main character, but in this great act 
of the drama of the cycle, Arthur is the central figure who in the 
moment of catastrophe, at the close, is left alone on the stage. In 
" Guinevere " and in " The passing of Arthur," the main dramatic 
action, so long intermingled with the incidents of separate narra- 
tives, becomes the subject of the Idyll. The poignant greatness of 
the tragedy in Guinevere is heightened by the cumulative force of 
many and complex elements ; the reader yields his mind to it as 
one who, following devious waterways for a long time, at length, 
feels himself borne out toward the infinite deep upon some great 



8i 

tidal current. In considering the relation of plot elements in Idyll 
and cycle, the order of study followed in the earlier part of the 
series is reversed. 

1. Make an outline of the plot elements of the cycle found in 
the story of " The I^ast Tournament." 

2. Make an outline of the separate story or episode of " The 
Last Tournament ". 

3. What is the theme of the Idyll, " The Last Tournament " ? 

4. What plot elements in this Idyll are important in the cycle ? 

5. Why did Tennyson place the beginning of " The Last Tour- 
nament ' ' on the morning after it took place ? 

6. In what is the beginning of the action? 

7. Show the purpose in the Idyll of each part of the antecedent 
material produced. 

8. At what point is the action of this Idyll resumed ? 

9. Trace the part of Sir Dragonet through the Idyll and show 
the purpose for which Tennyson uses this character. The 
explanation must include his words and their meaning with 
reference to the development of the main plot of the series. 

10. What is the reason for the introduction of a counter-round 
table ? 

11. Why is the account of Arthur's quest given as an interlude 
in Tristram's journey ? 

12. Is Tristram's song," Free-love— free field," significant chiefly 
in the story of Tristram and Isolt, or in the series of the Idylls ? 
Show reasons for your opinion in the artistic structure of the 
narrative. 

13. What is the interpretation to be given to Tristram's song 
before Isolt, " Ay, ay, oh, ay " ? 

14. What is the artistic purpose of this song in the Idylls ? 

15. What is the difference between Isolt's excuse for yielding to 
love and Guinevere's? 

16. What was Tristram's theory of life ? Of love ? 

17. Are the morality and theories of " The Last Tournament " 
borrowed from the old tales or invented by Tennyson ? 



82 

i8. What was Tristram's opinion of Arthur? Of Arthur's vows ? 
What was his explanation of the change in Arthur's court ? 

19. What other opinions of Arthur have been given? 

20. Character study of Lancelot : 

a. His ideals. 

b. His early purpose with regard to Guinevere ; to Arthur. 

c. The cause of change. 

d. Lancelot's position and influence in the court. 

21. Trace Lancelot's inner life through the Idylls in such a way 
as to show the quality of the man's spirit, his strength and 
weakness, the secret of each, his greatest mistake, the denial 
of himself that cost him most, his inmost desire. 

22. What is the difference between Arthur's meaning in the 
words, " It it well? " and Lancelot's understanding of them ? 

23. Has there been, hitherto, in the Idylls, any sign that Arthur 
entertained a suspicion of Lancelot, or of Guinevere ? 

24. How do you explain the turning of the queen's thought to 
Arthur in this time of doubt and pain ? 

25. Why is the account of Arthur's quest given as an interlude 
in Tristram's journey? 

26. There is in this Idyll more than one parallel suggested be- 
tween the love of Isolt and Tristram and the love of the Queen 
and Lancelot ; note these suggestions and inquire what Tenny- 
son's purpose was in the complexion given this story. 

27. How is the Queen's flight told ? Why ? What is the signifi- 
cance of this moment in the cycle ? 

28. What is the significance of " The Last Tournament," in the 
series of the Idylls ? What incident in the Idyll is most im- 
portant in the cycle plot ? Why ? 

29. Select one of the following poetic qualities and make a study 
of it throughout the Idyll, as before. 

a. Figurative language. 

b. Beauty of Description. 

c. Suggestiveness and Vision. 

d. Rythmic beauty in the succession of vowel sounds? 



83 

GUINEVERE. 
The Old Tale : 

The conclusion of the love of Lancelot and Guinevere ; in Le 
Morte Darthur, book xix., xx. 

Modred's treason and Arthur's death, in book xxi. 

See also Memoir, i., pp. 4, 19, 453. 

TOPICS FOR STUDY. 

Here, for the first time, the queen becomes the central figure 
of the story. 

1. What is the beginning of this plot ? 

2. What antecedent material is introduced at different points? 
For what reasons ? Why was it held back until the plot was 
so near a conclusion ? 

Does this revelation change the meaning of past incidents in 
the reader's mind ? 

In what respects does the story of the little maid differ from 
the narrative already given to the reader ? 

5. For what purpose is the song of the little maid used ? 

6. In Guinevere's own thought, what was the chief element of 
tragedy ? 

For what reason is the musing of Guinevere placed just 
before the coming of the king ? 

In Arthur's judgment of the queen, in what, chiefly, did he 
find her sin? 

In what points is the judgment of the king significant in 
relation to Guinevere's inner life. 

10. What grounds of hope, however distant, did he point out ? 

11. Why had Arthur failed to win the love of Guinevere, in the 
beginning? 

12. Is the reason for the turning of Guinevere's love to Arthur, 
at the last, found in the character of the queen, in the plot, or 
in the theme, or artistic purpose, of the Idylls ? Show the 
requirements in regard to each, and which had effect in the 
determination of the result. 



84 

13- What preparation in previous Idylls, if any, for Guinevere's 
turning to Arthur do you find ? Is the preparation sufficient 
in the dramatic sense ? 

14. What is the artistic necessity for this change in relation to 
Tennyson's inner and spiritual meaning in the Idylls? 

15. What was Guinevere's idea of repentance ? 

16. What Tvas the difference betvreen Guinevere's repentance 
and that of Lancelot ? 

Note. — A most interesting comparison between Lady Macbeth 
and Guinevere may be made at this point. Shakespeare and Tenny- 
son have each shown the effect of a consciousness of guilt on the 
feminine and on the masculine mind. 

17. What is the most dramatic moment in " Guinevere.? " The 
most significant moment in the plot ? 

18. What scene in '* Guinevere " is most effective for stage pre- 
sentation ? 

19. What moment fi:ses in the reader's mind the sense of finality 
in the catastrophe ? 

20. Trace Modred through the cycle. What relation has this 
character to the progress of the plot ? 

21. Effectiveness in plot, in situations, depends, in great degree, 
upon preparation. What preparation for cycle elements in the 
development of the plot in Guinevere has been made in previ- 
ous Idylls ? 

Find these in : 
a. Characters common to all the Idyll's, on which the plot 

depends ; discuss the relation of these to the plot, in the 

order of importance. 
d. Momenti tending to a climax and a conclusion. Show in 

which, chiefly, the main plot centers, and the relation of each 

subordinate motif to this central one. 

c. The artistic purpose of each Idyll in the series in relation 
to the one preceding and the one following. 

d. The epic presentation of King Arthur. 

e. The allegorical interpretation. 



85 

22. Critical question : Is there sufficient preparation for the 
turning of the queen's heart to Arthur, at the last ? 

23. What is Tennyson's final word about Arthur and the queen's 
love? 

24. In Le Morte Darihiir, book iii,, chapter i., Malory includes 
a warning of evil to come, in his account of how x\rthur wedded 
a wife. Why did Tennyson omit this warning in " The Coming 
of Arthur?" Show from the later development of the plot 
whether a forecast of possible danger, or the omission of any 
such hint, is the truer art. 

The Significance of " Guinevere " in the Cycle. 

25. Prepare for each previous Idyll, in order, a brief statement 
of its subject and artistic purpose in the series ; 

26. Of its chief significance in advancing the main plot of the 
series ; 

27. Of its relation and connection with previous Idylls. 

28. In the great dramatic action running through the series, 

a. In what do you find the artistic purpose, or theme, of the 
cycle ? 

b. Where do you place the climax of the action ? Why ? 

c. Where do you place the conclusion of the action ? Why ? 

Note. — There are, appparently, two disintegrating forces at 
work among Arthur's followers. In form, one is subordinated to 
the other, but only slightly, so that in effect there is a divided 
climax, and a lessening of unity, but the gain in the expression of 
both spiritual and dramatic meaning in one narrative compensates 
for an apparent weakness in the formal arrangement of the plot. 
In the drama written for Sir Henry Irving, the effect of the 
whole is marred by the borrowing of scene and form without the 
deeper meaning which, in Tennyson's Idylls, gives such poignant 
significance to the moments of climax and conclusion. 

29. Why did Tennyson place the death of Arthur after the con- 
clusion of the Idylls ? 



86 

For the fact that Tennyson recognized " Guinevere " as the 
the close of the Idylls, see Memoir, vol. ii., p. 126. 

30. How did Malory conclude the dramatic action of Le Morte 
Darihur} 

31. How did he conclude the love of Lancelot and Guinevere? 
Why ? 

32. Why did Malory include the death of Arthur in the dramatic 
action of his tale ? 

33. Who is the hero of Idylls of the King'i What is the proof ? 
34 Who is the hero of Malory's story ? What is the proof ? 
Literary Qualities : 

35. Study the artistic setting employed to heighten the effective- 
ness of the scenes in Guinevere, showing : 

a. Selection in description. 

b. Relation of Idyllic and artistic setting to the character of 
the scene. 

c. Effect produced : Define, or characterize the effect; is it an 
aid or a detriment in relation to the dramatic quality of the 
action .? 

Note. — In Guinevere, as in no other Idyll, description, setting, 
even idyllic qualities, are used for dramatic effect; each must there- 
fore be studied with reference to the character of the scene thus 
heightened or adorned. The selection and adjustment of idyllic 
material differs widely from that in poems where the natural 
features of the scene are used for pictorial effect, or mingle with the 
narrative intimately, forming thus the true Idyll. But Guinevere 
is, above all, a great tragic poem ; the " atmosphere " of the descrip- 
tive passages is caught from the emotional content of the scenes, 
but setting and background soon slip out of mind, leaving in the 
memory only the deep pathos and significance of the dramatic 
story, and the figures of those who have suffered, the sorrow, pity, 
and the irretrievable loss. 



THE PASSING OF ARTHUR. 

The Old Story: Le Morte Darthur, Book xxi., chapters i., ii., iii., 
iv., V. 

Note. — A brief narrative of the misfortunes that befell the 
king after the dispersal of his knights should be given by the in- 
structor as an introduction to study of " The Passing of Arthur." 
The material from which it should be drawn will be found in 
the Idylls, in Morte Darthur, and in narrative versions, such as 
Newell's King Arthur ^ — an especially useful book. Attention 
should be centered upon Arthur, the king, his life, his death, his 
ideals. 

The narrative of the rescue of Queen Guinevere from death by 
fire, of the wars between King Arthur and Lancelot on her account, 
is in book xx. of Malory's tale. The deaths of the queen in a nun- 
nery, and of Lancelot, a holy man, at Canterbury, are reached by 
different incidents in the two versions. Tennyson selected, here 
and there, certain incidents of Malory's story suited to his own 
purpose, but his arrangement of parts embodies a tragic action and 
a meaning in no wise suggested in the old romance. Much of 
"The Passing of Arthur" is mystical in meaning and in no other 
Idyll is there such tangible evidence of the mingling of earlier and 
later conceptions in Tennyson's mind. "Morte D' Arthur," — 
lines 170-440 of "The Passing of Arthur", — was published in 
" The Kpic," in 1842, and had been composed about five years earlier. 
It narrates the passing of a great epic hero, gone to heal him of his 
wounds, destined, perchance, in some distant day, to return and ful- 
fill, in happier times, his great purpose; — for " many men say that 
there is written upon his tomb this verse ' Hie jacet Arthurus Rex, 
quondam Rex que futurus.' " This Idyll in its present form was 
first published in 1869, but many changes and additions were made 
before the Library edition of Tennyson's poems in 1872 in which 
the Idylls, arranged in sequence, appeared. In the lines added or 
changed in this period, is found indisputable evidence of the poet's 
own interpretation of the inner meaning of the Idylls, mingling in 



88 

each and growing, toward the end, to clearer and fuller expression. 
In the careful comparison of editions made byaRichard Jones, it 
appears that lines 6 . . . 28, and 441 . . . 447, were added after the 
publication of " The Passing of Arthur " ; in 1869, probably about 
1872, in connection with the arrangement in sequence of all the 
Idylls then written. 

It is natural, then, to divide the study of this Idyll into two 
parts, one of the epic story which shows, even in the objective and 
Homeric form of narration chosen for it, evidence of an inner 
meaning, a spiritual purpose ; the other, of the Idyll fulfilling the 
purpose of the poet as the final and definite expression of the 
meanings half revealed, half hidden, in the earlier Idylls. 

TOPICS I^OR STUDY. 
"THE PASSING OF ARTHUR" AS AN KPIC STORY. 

The Revolt in Arthur's Kingdom : 

1. Who was Modred ? 

2. Trace Modred's career through all the Idylls and show the 
part he played in Arthur's Court. 

3. What was his excuse for leading a rebellion against Arthur? 
Note. — Malory names the parts of England — countries in the 

south — that joined Modred. Book xxi., chapter iii. 

4. Where did he take his stand for the last fight? 

5. Arthur's Sword, Excalibur : 

a. How came Arthur by the sword Excalibur in Tennyson's 
story? In Malory's story? See Morte Darthur^ book i., 
chapter xxiii. 

b. For what was Arthur to use the sword ? 

6. Arthur's Presentiment : 

a. Read the moanings of the king overheard by Sir Bedivere. 
What causes of grief oppressed him at this time ? 

b. Why did Arthur feel no hope or courage in gomg to battle 
at this time ? 



89 

NoTK. — The Celts believed that the appearance of one near of 
kin, or very dear, betokened the approach oi death. The voice of 
Gawain, " light upon the wind," seems an echo caught from Os- 
sian's poems, in which many illustrations of the same belief may 
be found. 

7. Who were the survivors of this fight? 

8. Tell in your own words the story of the casting away of Kx- 
caliber. Why was Bedivere so loth to lose Arthur's sword? 

9. What was the meaning of the sign that came to Arthur ? 

10. a. Read the account of Arthur's departure as an allegory with 

a spiritual meaning, and explain it. 
b. Read, afterwards, Tennyson's " Gleam ; " what in this poem 
makes you think of King Arthur ? 

11. Read Arthur's farewell, line by line, asking what each sen- 
tence means with reference to Arthur's life. Which words in 
it best represent Arthur himself ? 

Arthur, the King : 

12. When Arthur was crowned, what was his purpose in ruling ? 

13. What rules of conduct, what ideals of life, did he hold as 
guides for himself? 

14. Who was his dearest friend ? What was the condition and 
test of friendship with the king ? 

15. What did he expect of Guinevere, in the kingdom? 

16. By what pledges did he bind the Knights of the Round 
Table ? 

17. What did he expect of his knights ? 

18. Who was the greatest of his knights ? 

19 Who among them was most loyal to the king ? 

20, Who of all the knights best understood x\.rthur's purpose ? 
Percival speaks of not understanding all the king meant. 

At the time of the battle in the west: 

21. a. Where was Arthur's friend ? 

b. What had become of the queen ? 



90 

22. In what condition was the fellowship of the Round Table ? 

23. Did Arthur, when dying, believe that his life had been a 
failure ? 

24. Had the king's life really been worth living ? 

The Beauty and Meaning of Idylls of the King: 

25. Of all in Idylls of the King, which passage do you care most 
for on account of the beauty that is in it ? 

26. In all the Idylls, what passage has brought to you the deep- 
est and best meaning ; that is, what passage would you care 
most to remember always for the influence of its meaning in 
your life ? Written answers, with reasons, to hand in. 

" THK PASSING OIC ARTHUR" AS CONCLUSION 05* THE ETHICAL 
SIGNIi^ICANCE OF IDYLLS OF THE KING. 

For the circumstances attending the dedication of Idylls of the 
King, in 1862, to the memory of Prince Albert, see Memoir, vol. i., 
pp. 479, 480, 482,485. "The Dedication " and "To the Queen," 
added in the volume of 1872 should be studied attentively in con- 
nection with the "Passing of Arthur." The "Dedication" ex- 
pressed the deepest feelings of the poet's heart, and the parallel in 
his mind between the Prince Consort, gentle and beloved, and his 
king's ideal knight naturally led to a characterization which is, in 
reality, a comment on the Idylls. In "To the Queen," the poet 
returned to the same theme, asking his queen to accept this " old, 
imperfect tale, new-old, and shadowing sense at war with soul," 
not for itself but for the sake of one " to whom I had made it o'er 
his grave sacred." 
I. Present in writing the most complete and significant expres- 
sion you are able to make of Arthur's ideal for himself, his 
knights, his kingdom. 

Note. — It is necessary to trace this ideal of the king through 
the Idylls, defining the special phase of it expressed in each. 
The written expression of it should, however, be original composi. 
tion giving the individual impression and understanding of it ; 
quotations should be used only in illustration. 



91 

2. Present from careful study of the Idylls the most complete 
and reasonable statement of the reasons or excuses of those 
who dissented from Arthur in his purpose, or who failed in 
the fulfillment of the obligations willingly assumed. 

3. To what did Arthur himself attribute his failure to achieve 
his purpose ? 

4. a. In Tennyson's conception, what were the causes of the 

failure of the king's ideal? 

b. Where in the Idylls do you first find these causes of failure 
at work? 

c. Why did the king fail to understand the moral decay go- 
ing on around him ? At what time is the first sign of alarm 
or suspicion on his part? 

5. What is the final word of the poet in regard to Arthur's 
ideal ? 

6. In what, chiefly, lay the tragedy of Arthur's life ? 

7. In the outward incidents at the close of Arthur's life, what 
elements of great tragedy are found ? 

8. By what means did the poet sink these to comparative insig- 
nificance in his narrative ? 

9. How long a time passed between the first writing of " The 
Passing of Arthur " and the addition of the lines which com- 
pleted the poem? What evidence that Tenn3^son's purpose 
had changed, meantime, is contained in the poem itself? 

10. a. What qualities of the Homeric style do you find in " The 
Passing of Arthur," as published in 1842? 

b. In what qualities, chiefly, do the lines written later differ 
from the earlier ones ? 

c. What evidence, in the earlier poems, do you find fore- 
shadowing an epic character in the series ? 

d. In what respect did Tennyson modify or sacrifice epic 
qualities, and substitute other literary forms of expression ? 

Note. — This topic involves, first, a comparison of the literary 
qualities of the earlier and later poem, with a view of distinguish- 
ing essential differences, and, secondly, an inquiry as to the artistic 



92 

requirement, in the poet's mind, fulfilled by each carefully chosen 
literary quality. It must be remembered that a slow change had 
taken place in the poet himself between 1842 and the completion of 
Idylls of the King, which also had its influence in the choice of 
artistic qualities. 
II. What is the significance of Arthur's last words ? 

a. In relation to the theme of the Idylls. 

b. As a revelation of Tennyson's philosophy of life. 

NoTK. — The second point would be irrelevant in the critical 
s\M^j oi Idylls of the King ^Q^x^ it not that the ethical content of 
of these poems is intimately bound up with Tennyson's personal 
belief; his religious beliefs, his attitude of mind, a tendency to 
pessimism or the reverse, find expression in his writings, and one 
poem may serve in the interpretation of another. His attitude 
toward historic Christianity, however, must not be confused with 
his acceptance or rejection of the present expression, in the form of 
creeds, of beliefs descended from the mediaeval church. 



CRITICAL STUDY OF IDYLLS OF THE KING. 

General topics for critical study of Idylls of the King are 
omitted from this study. The suggestions given below are in- 
tended as an aid in the formation and expression of such critical 
opinion as has naturally resulted from the previous reading. The 
topics suggested occasionally in the Study-Guide may easily be 
made the subjects of extended and valuable critical study by 
individuals having leisure, aptitude, and library facilities at 
command. 

In study clubs, written papers may be arranged, when desired, 
on topics suggested in the introduction, for note-book work; or, 
literary qualities, special topics, etc., may be selected as subjects of 
critical inquirj^ ; an original and valuable paper may be written by 
carrjdng out in all the Idylls, the study suggested in the single 
Idyll, for the single topic. 



93 

I. The relation of the Idyll to the series : 

a. '* The Coming of Arthur " : State fully, in your own words, 
discuss, and illustrate, the true subject or purpose of this 
Idyll as an act in the drama of the series. 

b. The following nwnienti run through the series ; discuss 
the dramatic significance of each in " The Coming of 
Arthur," in relation to the subject of the Idyll, and the 
larger narrative of the series : 

(i) Arthur's secret word and ideal. 

(2) Guinevere's sin. 

(3) Lancelot's relation with the king and the strife of his 
inner life. 

(4) The corruption and decay of the Round Table, noting 
causes, progress, etc. 

(5) The state of the kingdom with reference to the fulfillment 
of Arthur's ideal. 

c. Discuss in the same way, " Gareth and L/ynette." 

d. Discuss " Geraint and Enid," and "The Marriage of 
Geraint," as one Idyll. 

e. Discuss ** Balin and Balan," as above, considering especially 
the significance of the Idyll as transition from the preceding 
Idyll to the '* Merlin and Vivien." 

f. Discuss " Merlin and Vivien," considering the subject, and 
the momenti mentioned above. 

g. As above, consider " Lancelot and Blaine." 
h. As above, " Pelleas and Ettarre." 

i. " The Last Tournament," as above. 
NoTK. — Each Idyll should be considered as a continuation of 
all that have preceded, and at each point in the discussion the 
added significance of the motive, or act, in comparison with the 
same in previous Idylls is the point for attention. 

j. "Guinevere, as above, and with especial reference to the 
dramatic culmination and the conclusion of Idylls of the King. 

II. The Idylls as a dramatic action in twelve parts : 
a. In what is the beginning of the plot : 



94 

b. In what is the climax ? 

c. "What is the conclusion ? 

Show whether the great scenes in the spiritual content of the 
Idylls coincide with the dramatic scenes, and moments. 

d. In what points did the ethical meaning modify or limit 
the dramatic presentation of the Idylls ? 

e. In what points did the necessity of the development of 
dramatic action limit or confuse the presentation of spiritual 
meaning? 

f. What allegorical elements do you find in Idylls of the 
Ki7ig ? 

g. What is the relation of the allegorical elements to the dra- 
matic presentation ? To the spiritual meaning of the Idylls ? 

Note. — A word must be said in regard to the allegory thread- 
ing these Idylls. The author's own word of warning is important, 
for, in the pursuit of the fable, readers almost certainly miss some 
part of the subtle spiritual meaning it was intended to convey. A 
memorandum of Tennyson's earliest plan for " King Arthur " has 
been preserved and is given in chapter v. of volume ii. of the 
" Memoir." Hallam Tennyson in his note says " that the allegori- 
cal drift here marked out was' fundamentally changed in the later 
scheme of the Idylls." In later years, the poet admitted the alle- 
gorical drift in the inner meaning of these poems but insisted that 
an allegory should never be pressed too far ; — "I hate to be tied 
down to say this means that," he once answered, ** because the 
thought within the image is so much more than any one interpre- 
tation." 
III. The Reading of Criticism of Idylls of the King : 

References for interpretation and criticism of Idylls of the King 
are given in the bibliography. These should be read for compari- 
son of differing opinions. If it is desirable to assign topics for 
report, each reader or student should take a single topic, as " The 
Character of Arthur," or " The Allegorical Meanings;" and read 
many books on the single point. A report which consists of the 
statement and discussion of differing opinions of several writers 
will be of real value. 

THE END. 



96 

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